Jump to content

Chongryon

Coordinates: 35°41′49″N 139°44′37″E / 35.696972°N 139.7435°E / 35.696972; 139.7435
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Chongryun)

General Association of Korean Residents in Japan
AbbreviationCh'ongryŏn, Chōsen Sōren
PredecessorMinsen[1]
Formation25 May 1955; 69 years ago (1955-05-25)[2]
TypeNGO
Location
Coordinates35°41′49″N 139°44′37″E / 35.696972°N 139.7435°E / 35.696972; 139.7435
Region served
Japan
Official language
Korean, Japanese
Chairman
Ho Jong-man
First Vice-Chairman
Pak Ku-ho[3]
Vice-Chairman
Nam Sung-woo, Bai Jin-ku, Jo Il-yon, Song Kun-hak, So Chung-on, Kang Chu-ryon
Key people
Han Duk-su, founder
Main organ
General Assembly
Parent organisation
United Front Department of the Workers' Party of Korea[needs update]
Websitewww.chongryon.com Edit this at Wikidata
Ch'ongryŏn
Japanese name
Kanji在日本朝鮮人総聯合会 or 在日本朝鮮人総連合会
Kanaざいにほんちょうせんじんそうれんごうかい
Transcriptions
Revised HepburnZai-Nihon Chōsenjin Sōrengōkai
North Korean name
Chosŏn'gŭl재일본조선인총련합회
Hancha在日本朝鮮人總聯合會
Transcriptions
Revised RomanizationJaeilbon Joseonin Chongnyeonhaphoe
McCune–ReischauerChaeilbon Chosŏnin Ch'ongryŏnhaphoe

The General Association of Korean Residents in Japan,[4] abbreviated as Chongryon[4] (Korean: 총련; Hanja: 總聯; RR: Chongryeon; MR: Ch'ongryŏn) or Chōsen Sōren (Japanese: 朝鮮総連),[5] is one of two main organisations for Zainichi Koreans (Korean citizens or residents of Japan), the other being Mindan. It has close ties to North Korea and functions as North Korea's de facto embassy in Japan, as there are no diplomatic relations between the two countries.[6][7] The organisation is headquartered in Chiyoda, Tokyo, and there are prefectural and regional head offices and branches throughout Japan.

Mindan, officially the Korean Residents Union in Japan, contrastingly consists of Zainichi Koreans who have adopted South Korean nationality. As of 2018, among 610,000 Korean residents in Japan who have not adopted Japanese nationality, 25 percent are affiliated with the Chongryon, and 65 percent are affiliated with Mindan.[8] As of 2016, PSIA reported that Chongryon had 70,000 members.

Chongryon's strong links to North Korea, its allegiance to the North Korean ideology and its opposition to integration of Koreans into Japanese society have made it controversial in Japan. Acts which Chongryon officials are suspected of include notably the 1977-1983 abduction of Japanese nationals, illicit transfer of funds to North Korea, espionage, drug smuggling and the smuggling of electronics and missile parts.[9] The Chongryon has been described by the Washington Post as a "very effective sanctions-busting enterprise".[10] Its wide variety of businesses, including banks and pachinko parlors, are used to generate funds for the North Korean government.[10]

Numerous organisations are affiliated with the Chongryon, including 18 mass propaganda bodies and 23 business enterprises, with one of its most important business sectors being pachinko. The organisation also operates about 60 Korean schools and a Korean university, as well as banks and other facilities in Japan. Chongryon schools teach a strong pro-North Korean ideology.

In recent years, the organization has run into severe financial trouble, with debts of over US$750 million, and was ordered by court in 2012 to dispose of most of its assets, including its Tokyo headquarters.[11]

According to an interview with Mitsuhiro Suganuma, former head of the Public Security Intelligence Agency's Second Intelligence Department, Chongryon is under the control of the United Front Department of the Workers' Party of Korea's Liaison Department.[12]

Background and history

[edit]
Main article: Zainichi Koreans

Long-term ethnic Korean residents in Japan primarily consist of those, and descendants of, ethnic Koreans who settled in Japan as:

  • Migrants during Japan's rule over Korea (1910–1945)
  • Conscripted labourers during the Second World War
  • Post-World War II refugees, especially from Jeju island escaping the 1948 Jeju massacre.

A 1953 government survey revealed that 93% were from the southern half of the Korean peninsula.

From 1910 to 1945, ethnic Koreans were Japanese nationals. The end of the Second World War left the nationality status of Koreans in an ambiguous position, as no recognized functional government existed on the Korean Peninsula (the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, a government-in-exile, was only somewhat recognized internationally and was not a formal Korean government until South Korea's formation in 1948). Their nationality was provisionally registered under the name of Joseon (Chōsen in Japanese, 朝鮮, 조선), the old name of undivided Korea.

The 1948 declaration of independence by both South and North Korea made Joseon a defunct nation. Those with Joseon nationality were allowed to re-register their nationality to a South Korean one; however the same did not apply to North Korea due to the fact that Japan only recognises South Korea as the legitimate government of Korea, so supporters of the North retained their Joseon nationality.

Ethnic Koreans in Japan established the League of Koreans in Japan (재일본조선인연맹) in 1945, which followed a socialist ideology, and was banned in 1949 by the order of Allied occupation army.[13] The United Democratic Front of Korea in Japan (재일조선민주전선) was established in 1951, which was banned due to suspected involvement in the 1952 May Day riots.

In 1952, the North Korean leader Kim Il Sung called on the socialist Zainichi Korean movement to be coordinated in close contact with the North Korean government, and to fight, not for a socialist revolution in Japan, but for the socialist reunification of the Korean peninsula.

Chongryon was established on 25 May 1955[2] by Han Duk-su, who was an activist for leftist labor movements in Japan.

In the late 1950s, Chongryon conducted a campaign to persuade Zainichi Koreans to migrate to North Korea. The campaign was vehemently opposed by Mindan which organised hunger strikes and train obstructions. Some 87,000 Zainichi Koreans and about 6,000 Japanese spouses moved to the North. According to a defector, himself a former returnee, many petitioned to be returned to Japan and in response were sent to political prison camps. Japanese research puts the number of Zainichi Korean returnees condemned to prison camps at around 10,000.[14][15] In 1990 Ha Su-to, former vice chief of organization for Chongryon who was expelled in 1972 for demanding democratic reforms, led a rally in Tokyo of 500 to protest against North Korea's human rights violations, in which protesters accused North Korea of holding the ex-Zainichi returnees captive to siphon money off remittances from their relatives in Japan.[16]

Ideology

[edit]

On their website, Chongryon claims that all their activities are based around the concept of Juche, the official state ideology of North Korea.[17]

Chongryon opposes the use of the Japanese word Kita-Chosen ("North Korea") as an abbreviation of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. It refers to the country as Kyōwakoku ("The Republic") or Sokoku ("The Fatherland"). In 1972 Chongryon campaigned to get the Japanese media to stop referring to North Korea as Kita-Chosen. This effort was not successful, but as a compromise, most media companies agreed to refer to the DPRK with its full official title at least once in every article. By January 2003, this policy started to be abandoned by most newspapers, starting with Tokyo Shimbun, which announced that it would no longer write out the full name,[18] followed by Asahi, Mainichi and Nikkei.[19]

Chongryon claims to be a representative body of overseas North Korean citizens living in Japan and rejects the notion that they are a mere ethnic minority.[20]

Out of the two main Korean organisations in Japan, Chongryon has been the more militant in advocating retention of Korean ethnic identity. It is generally opposed to Korean-Japanese integration into Japanese society; for example, it discourages its members from naturalising as Japanese citizens or marrying Japanese (which it calls an "international marriage"). It even rejects Zainichi Koreans' right to vote or participate in Japanese regional elections, which it sees as an unacceptable attempt at assimilation into Japanese society.[21] This is in contrast to Mindan, which is campaigning for wider Zainichi Korean participation in Japanese politics.[22]

Membership

[edit]

Chongryon members primarily consist of those who have retained their registration as Joseon nationals (Japanese: Chōsen-seki), instead of taking or being born with Japanese or South Korean nationality. Joseon nationality was a legal status that the Japanese government defined in the aftermath of World War II, when the government of the Korean peninsula was in an undetermined state. Prior to the end of World War II, Korea was administered by the Japanese government as being part of Japan, thus the legal nationality of Koreans, both in Japan and in Korea, was Japanese. As of 2022 there were around 25,000 people with the Joseon status, compared to over 409,000 registered South Korean nationals in Japan.[23]

Five other senior Chongryon officials are also members of the Supreme People's Assembly (North Korea's parliament).[24]

The PSIA reported that Chongryon had 70,000 members in 2016.[25]

Official activities

[edit]

Chongryon runs support and advisory services for members, such as legal and marriage advice and employment help. It is responsible for issuing North Korean passports.

Chongryon-affiliated organisations operate businesses and banks to provide jobs, services and social networks for Zainichi Koreans outside of mainstream society. In 1990, the Chongryon banking system was capitalized to around $25 billion.[10] In the 1970s and 1980s, these organizations constituted an important economic link between North Korea and Japan. The Chongryon-affiliated companies monitored the Tokyo Stock Exchange to enable the DPRK to sell its non-ferrous metals and other mineral products at the most advantageous prices, and purchased inexpensive Japanese consumer goods for re-export to the Comecon countries.[26] Chongryon supporters are thought to control as much as one third of the pachinko industry in Japan. An important function of these enterprises is earning hard currency to be remitted to Pyongyang. These remittances have been estimated at between $600 million and $1.9 billion each year but are probably much lower.[6] Chongryon announced plans on 17 March 2010 to open three restaurants in Pyongyang; each restaurant will be managed by the main headquarter in Tokyo, the Kantō regional chapter, and the Kinki-Tōkai regional chapter.[27]

Chongryon publishes the Choson Sinbo newspaper as well as magazines and other publications. Websites run by Chongryon-affiliated organisations include the English-language People's Korea.[28] Chongryon also runs cultural activities and sports teams representing its members.

Chongryon organises trips by members to North Korea, usually to visit relatives, as well as educational visits for students of Korean schools. They operated Man Gyong Bong 92, a passenger and cargo ferry which linked Niigata in Japan to Wonsan in North Korea, which served as the only direct link between the two countries, and is a subject of much controversy. The ferry was barred from entering the Japanese port for six months in response to North Korea's July 2006 missile tests and was banned indefinitely following the 2006 North Korean nuclear test due to suspicions of smuggling electronics used in missiles.[29]

The Congress, the highest legislative organ of Chongryon, has met every three years since 1961 to discuss its agenda, the election of key leaders and its budget.[30]

On 25 November 2020, Pak Ku-ho replaced Ho Jong-man as the head of Chongryon due to the latter's health complications from diabetes.[3]

The North Korean Chongryon-affiliated Fukushima Korean School sheltered 18 Japanese citizens from 18 March until the end of March.[31] However, the Chongryon criticized the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan for not officially recognizing North Korea as one of the countries that sent humanitarian aid to the survivors of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.[32]

Following the death of North Korean leader Kim Jong-il in December 2011, Chongryon ordered members to keep a low profile. Pupils at its schools were barred from speaking to reporters, Japanese and Westerners alike, who in turn were turned away from facilities.[33]

In June 2012, the Japanese Supreme Court recognized Chongryon's role as North Korea's de facto embassy and authorized the seizure of Chongryon properties to pay off debts incurred.[34][35] In 2013 a bid was approved on the property by Ekan Ikeguchi who was subsequently unable to secure funding. In November 2014, Marunaka Holdings Co. purchased the property for ¥2.21 billion with plans to evict the Chongryon.[36]

According to the Dong-A Ilbo, the Chongryon cooperated with Nike to make an advertisement addressing problems of Zainichi Koreans in 2020.[37][38]

On 28 May 2022, Kim Jong Un sent a 10,000-character letter to the members.[39]

Korean schools

[edit]
Main article: Chōsen gakkō
Classroom at Tokyo Korean High School with photographs of Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il

Chongryon operates 140[40] ethnic Korean schools (Chōsen gakkō 朝鮮学校 or chosǒn hakkyo 조선학교) across Japan, including kindergartens and one university, Korea University, initially partly funded by the North Korean government. All lessons and all conversation in the school are conducted in Korean. They teach a strong pro-North Korean ideology and glorify the regimes of Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il and Kim Jong Un.[41] They are not classified as regular schools under Japanese law as they do not follow the national curriculum.[22]

They are distinct from Kankoku gakkō [ja] (한국학교, 韓國學校, 韓国学校) which are overseas South Korean schools (재외한국학교, 在外韓國學校, 在外韓国学校) in Japan, which receive approval from the South Korean government and incorporate the South Korean educational curriculum and regular Japanese curriculum.[42]

Their militant stance is increasingly coming under criticism from pupils, parents and the public alike. The number of pupils receiving ethnic education from Chongryon-affiliated schools has declined sharply in recent years, down to about 10,000 in 2009[43] from a high of 46,000 in the early 1970s, with many, if not most, Zainichi now opting to send their children to mainstream Japanese schools. As of March 2010, there were 12 Chosen high schools with an enrollment of about 2,000 students.[44]

The schools were initially funded by North Korea, but this money has dried up. Today funding comes partly from local Japanese authorities, and many schools are facing financial difficulties. The Japanese government has refused Chongryon's requests that it fund Korean schools, citing Article 89 of the Japanese Constitution, according to which use of public funds for education by "schemes not under public control" is prohibited. Chongryon calls this an act of racial discrimination. Funding from local authorities usually takes place in the form of special benefits paid to the families of pupils, as opposed to paying the schools directly, to avoid a blatant breach of Article 89.[45]

Another issue is the high school equivalency examination, daiken, that qualifies those who have not graduated from a regular high school to apply for a place in a state university and take an entrance exam. Until recently, only those who had completed compulsory education (i.e., up to junior high school) were entitled to take the daiken; this meant pupils of ethnic schools had to do extra courses before being allowed to take the exam. In 1999 the requirement was amended so that anyone over a certain age is qualified. Campaigners were not satisfied because this still meant graduates of non-Japanese high schools had to take the daiken. In 2003, the Education Ministry removed the requirement to take the equivalency test from graduates of Chinese schools, Mindan-run Korean schools and international schools affiliated with Western nations and accredited by American and British organisations. However, this did not apply to graduates of Chongryon schools, saying it could not approve their curricula. The decision was left up to individual universities, 70% of which allowed Chongryon school graduates to apply directly.[46]

The North Korean government sponsored Chongryon schools for 50 years with "funds for educational support" and "scholarships" totaling around 46 billion yen.[47] The Japanese government has proposed covering the tuition for all private high schools in Japan, with the exception of the Chongryon schools.[44][48] As the Chongryon high schools are not being covered by the tuition support, there have been conflicts within the Chongryon whether to make amendments to school policies or keep them as is.[49]

Due to the issues described above, enrollment in schools run by Chongryon have declined sharply, and many of the children of Zainichi Koreans now choose to go to orthodox Japanese schools.[50] The vast majority of Koreans in Japan attend regular Japanese schools or South Korean international schools. For example, in 2012 87% of Koreans in Osaka attend wholly Japanese schools which make no provisions for bilingual education.[51]

American student exchange program

[edit]

In January 2019, Korea University—Chongryon's only higher educational institution—hosted its first exchange program with US students from DePauw University. The program was organized by DePauw University Professor Derek Ford,[52] West Chester University Professor Curry Malott[53] and Kiyul Chung.[54] Ford is Chair and Associate Professor of Education Studies.[55] Chung is a Visiting Professor at Tsinghua University and Korea University. He was born in South Korea but is also a Visiting Professor at Kim Il Sung University in North Korea. Malott is Associate Professor of Educational and Foundational Policy Studies at West Chester Univiersity.[56]

Held shortly before the February 2019 summit between Donald Trump and Kim Jong-un, the trip was widely reported in North Korean aligned media. Choson Sinbo ran several articles, one of which predicted warming and normalizing relations between the US and DPRK that was framed around the exchange.[57] Jung Da Min of the South Korean Korea Times wrote that the visit "highlighted improving relations between the two countries on the government and non-government level".[58][59]

DePauw students visited Chongryon schools again in January 2020, but plans to repeat the trip in January 2021 were postponed because of COVID-19. After travel restrictions in Japan were lifted, another delegation visited Chongryon between 20–26 November 2022.[60] In January 2024, the official DePauw University-Korea University resumed, led by Ford and Howley, Professor of Communication and Theater at DePauw.[61][62]

[edit]

For a long time, Chongryon enjoyed unofficial immunity from searches and investigations, partly out of respect for its role as North Korea's de facto embassy, and partly due to its power as an ethnic political pressure group.[12] However, escalating tensions between Japan and North Korea over a number of issues, namely its nuclear weapons programme, firing of missiles over Japan and abduction of Japanese nationals has led to protests and public animosity against Chongryon due to its active support of the Pyongyang regime.[63] Acts which Chongryon officials are suspected of include illicit transfer of funds to North Korea, drug smuggling,[63] espionage, and the smuggling of electronics and missile parts.[9] The Chongryon has been described by the Washington Post as a "very effective sanctions-busting enterprise".[10] Its wide variety of businesses, including banks and pachinko parlors, are used to generate funds for the North Korean government.[10]

Kim Kil-uk, a former head of a Chongryon school in Osaka, is suspected of being involved in the 1980s kidnapping of Japanese citizens. Kim, who fled to North Korea, remains on Interpol’s wanted list.[63] In March 2006, Osaka police raided six facilities, including the North Korean Chamber of Commerce, in an investigation into the circumstances surrounding the June 1980 disappearance of one of the abductees, Tadaaki Hara. All six facilities were linked to Chongryon.[64][65]

Since allegations of Pyongyang's nuclear weapons programme first surfaced in the early 1990s,[66] Chongryon has frequently reported being targeted by hate mail, malicious phone calls, and numerous incidents. Chongryon facilities have also frequently been sites of protests by Japanese right-wing groups. There have been numerous incidents of students of Chongryon schools, identifiable by their uniforms based on traditional Korean clothing, suffering verbal abuse. Furthermore, around May and June 1994 there was a series of physical assaults on Chongryon students in which their uniforms were cut.[50] In 1998, a petrol bomb was thrown at Chongryon's headquarters in Tokyo, causing minor damage. In June 2003, a shot was fired into a Chongryon warehouse in Niigata, hitting cargo waiting to be loaded onto Mangyongbong-92. In October 2006 in the aftermath of North Korea's first nuclear test, a suspected arson attack damaged a bamboo grove inside Chongryon's school in Mito.[66] The Zaitokukai received criticism from a District Court for harassing Chongryon-affiliated schoolchildren.[67]

The Japanese authorities have recently started to crack down on Chongryon activities, moves usually criticised by Chongryon as acts of political suppression.[68] The first raid on Chongryon facilities was in 1994, when a rally held in Osaka by Rescue the North Korean People (RENK), a Japanese citizens group set up to help refugees and demand democracy and human rights in North Korea, was attacked and broken up by a 100-strong mob. Police investigations revealed that the disruption was orchestrated by Chongryon.[69]

In 2000, a member of a Japanese criminal group was arrested after purchasing 250kg (550lbs) of amphetamines from Cho Gyu-son in the North Korean port of Wonsan. Cho was the former head of a Chongryon school in Shimonoseki before becoming the founder of what was ostensibly a trading company. He remains on the Japanese police's wanted list.[63] Japan was a major target market for North Korean-sponsored methamphetamine drug trafficking.[70] In August 2003, the Yomiuri Shimbun reported that a North Korean defector confessed to smuggling drugs for North Korea into Japan through the Mangyongbong-92. He would deliver these drugs to a member of Chongryon, who would then deliver the drugs to the Japanese yakuza. This confession supported the U.S. State Department testimonies made in May of that year, that North Korea’s methamphetamine market in Japan provided the government with a profit of up to US $7 billion.[71][70]

In November 2001, police raided the Tokyo headquarters of Chongryon and its Tokyo regional office as part of an investigation into alleged embezzlement by one of its senior officials. This followed an arrest of Kang Young-kwan, 66, a member of Chongryon's central standing committee and a former head of its financial bureau, among other Chongryon officials, who admitted diverting $6.5 million on behalf of Chongryon from the Tokyo Chogin, a credit union set up to serve pro-North Korean residents which failed in 1999. About 400 Chongryon supporters scuffled with police after they gathered in protest at what they called an act of political suppression and racial discrimination.[72][73]

In 2002, Shotaro Tochigi, deputy head of the Public Security Intelligence Agency told a session of the House of Representatives Financial Affairs Committee that the agency is investigating Chongryon for suspected illicit transfers of funds to the North.[74] In 2003, a North Korean defector made a statement to the US Senate committee stating that more than 90% of the parts used by North Korea to construct its missiles were brought from Japan aboard Mangyongbong-92, a Chongryon-operated ship which is the only regular direct link between North Korea and Japan.[75] In 2003, The Associated Press reported that Japanese authorities are preparing to charge a 72-year-old former senior member of Chongryon who was engaged in espionage activities for using false identity. It was claimed that espionage instructions were relayed to him by the captain of Mangyongbong 92. Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi told reporters "We must watch (the vessel) closely lest it be used for crime."[76]

In July 2003, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government reversed a decision made in 1972 by the socialist Tokyo Governor Ryokichi Minobe to exempt Chongryon from property tax. Chongryon refused to pay, resulting in seizure of three Chongryon properties.[77] In March 2006, following a ruling by Fukuoka High Court, the Internal Affairs Ministry instructed prefectural governments across Japan to review any property tax exemptions on Chongryon properties.[78]

In May 2006, Chongryon and the pro-South Mindan agreed to reconcile, only for the agreement to break down the following month due to Mindan's distrust of Chongryon. North Korea's missile tests in July 2006 have deepened the divide, with Chongryon refusing to condemn the missile tests, instead only condemning the backlash.[66] Mindan members expressed strong opposition to the agreement and accused the group’s top executives of holding secret reconciliation talks after the missile tests.[22] Mindan’s chief and other executives resigned in July amid the fallout.[22]

In November 2006, police raided the Chongryon's Tokyo headquarters in an investigation behind an attempt to illegally export 60 bags of intravenous solutions to North Korea. The solution was intercepted by Japanese customs as they were taken aboard Man Gyong Bong 92. It was reported that the solutions could have been used to make biological weapons, a claim denied by Chongryon. Crowds of Chongryon supporters tried to block access to the building, leading to deployment of riot police. In February 2007, police in Hokkaido raided ten locations linked to Chongryon, including its Hokkaido head office in Sapporo and a famous mutton yakiniku restaurant owned by a senior Chongryon official in Susukino, Sapporo, over alleged tax evasion amounting to tens of millions of yen. Four people, including the restaurant owner and a senior official of Chongryon's Sapporo chamber of commerce and industry, were arrested. Also in February 2007, Police raided several locations including Chongryon's Hyogo headquarters in Kobe, and arrested three people, including Song Gi-hwan, who heads the accounting division of Chongryon's Hyogo chamber of commerce and industry, over alleged unlicensed accounting. Riot police scuffled with a crowd of Chongryon supporters who gathered in protest. Footage of the raids were later released by Chongryon.[79]

On 3 March 2007, thousands of Chongryon members staged a rally in Hibiya Park in protest against police investigations into the organisation and bullying of schoolchildren, which they called "political suppression and human rights abuses" by the Japanese authorities.[80] The protesters, who numbered between 3000 (according to local media) and 7000 (according to Chongryon), staged a 2.9 km-long march wielding posters of the North Korean leader Kim Jong Il. Chongryon's number two, Nam Sung-u was quoted as saying "Japan's violations of human rights against the DPRK and Koreans in Japan cannot be allowed, no matter what".[81] The Tokyo Metropolitan Government attempted to ban the protest fearing violence but they were overruled by a court ruling. Riot police scuffled with Japanese ultranationalist groups who had gathered in counterprotest resulting in one arrest. In June 2007, it was reported that Chongryon attempted to sell its main headquarters to Shigetake Ogata, (ex-head of the Public Security Intelligence Agency who now leads an investment firm) due to financial troubles and tensions with the Japanese government, however, creditors moved to block the sale in court and, according to North Korea's official news service article of 22 June 2007, the courts granted a Japanese collection agency the right to dispose of the property.[82]

In 2011, following the death of Kim Jong-il, the Japanese government refused to issue re-entry permits to stop Chongryon personnel in case they wanted to attend his funeral.[33]

The South Korean National Election Commission considered preventing Chongryon residents from voting in the 2012 South Korean Presidential Election.[83]

In 2014, Japanese courts blocked a Mongolian company from buying the Chongryon building.[12]

In 2015, the Tokyo home of Ho Jong-man, chairman of Chongryon, was raided by the police in relation to 1,200 kilos of matsutake mushrooms illegally smuggled from North Korea.[84]

In 2017, Korean scientists with strong ties to Chongryon, including Dr. Pyeon Cheol-ho, an assistant professor at Kyoto University's Research Reactor Institute, were accused of conducting espionage to aid the North Korean nuclear weapons program.[9] In particular, Pyeon's research on neutrons could be used to achieve the miniaturization of nuclear warheads for use in intercontinental ballistic missiles.[9] It has been reported that Pyeon has visited North Korea on seven occasions between 1992 and 2008.[9]

On 23 February 2018, the Chongryon building was targeted in an attack when two persons in a van opened fire at the compound before 4 in the morning.[85] They were eventually arrested by police and were identified as Satoshi Katsurada, a right-wing activist and Yoshinori Kawamura, an ex-yakuza member with the latter confirmed as the person responsible for firing a gun with five shots fired.[86]

In 2019, Chongryon students protested in Tokyo when the Japanese government excluded Pyongyang-affiliated schools a new government subsidy program, although local governments continue to fund Chongryon students.[63] Students held up banners denouncing the "discrimination and persecution against Koreans".[63] Ken Kato, the director of Human Rights in Asia and a long-time campaigner against North Korea’s rights abuses said "These are the sort of 'model North Korean citizens' who are teaching their youngsters, and it’s absolutely not right that Japanese taxpayers’ money is being spent to promote a murderous and corrupt regime".[63] [87]

On 17 May 2019, it was announced that Japanese law enforcement will continue to monitor Chongryon activities due to its close ties with North Korea.[1] On 9 July 2020, an anti-riot officer stationed near Chongryon killed himself after he was off duty with his own sidearm.[88]

In December 2023, the South Korean Ministry of Unification began investigating actor Kwon Hae-hyo, producer Cho Eun-seong and film director Kim Jee-woon for unauthorized contact with North Koreans after making a documentary highlighting discrimination in Chongryon schools.[89] Article 9 of the Inter-Korean Exchange and Cooperation Act states that South Korean citizens must notify the Ministry of Unification in advance if they intend to contact a citizen of North Korea, even if abroad. This legislation especially applies to those seeking to make contact with people linked to Chosen schools that are affiliated with the Chongryon.[90] However, if the person being contacted is a citizen of South Korea, no advance notification is required.[91] Cho Eun-seong stated, "in the past 10 years, I have made several documentaries related to Koreans in Japan and this is the first time something like this has happened."[92]

The news of Seoul's investigations sparked controversy in the Zainichi community, with many fearing they could be suspected as a spy for simply speaking to someone North Korean. A restaurant owner, who is an ethnic Korean and third-generation immigrant in Japan, stated, "It’s perfectly natural for Koreans who have been in Japan for several generations to be on familiar terms with [North Koreans]. It’s certainly nothing to report to the authorities."[93]

Chongryon affiliates

[edit]
  • Chongryon Film Studio
  • Korean Literature and Art Studio
  • Korean Music Studio
  • Kumgangsan Opera Troupe [ja]
  • Tokyo Korean Song and Dance Ensemble
  • Northern Kanto Song and Dance Ensemble
  • Tokai Korean Song and Dance Ensemble
  • Kyoto Korean Song and Dance Ensemble
  • Osaka Korean Song and Dance Ensemble
  • Hyogo Korean Song and Dance Ensemble
  • Hiroshima Song and Dance Ensemble
  • Kyoshyo Song and Dance Ensemble
  • Commercial enterprises
  • Chugai Travel
  • Korean—Japanese Export-Import Trading Company
  • Donghae Commercial Company
  • Korean Speciality Treading Company
  • Chiyoda International Treading Company
  • Kongtong Hungye Company
  • Kyonghwa Commercial Company
  • Runghung Merchant Company
  • Near Ocean Transportation Company
  • Haeyang Medicine Company
  • Zainichi Korean Science and Technology Association [ja]
  • Zainichi Korean Business and Industry League
  • Zainichi Korean Youth Business and Industry Association
  • Zainichi Korean Teachers' League
  • Korean Central Education Association in Japan
  • United Zainichi Korean Credit Association
  • Zainichi Korean Human Rights Association [ja]
  • Zainichi Korean Comment Publisher Association
  • Zainichi Korean Social Scientist Association
  • Zainichi Korean Health Association
  • Zainichi Korean Literature and Art League
  • Korean Art Research Institute
  • Zainichi Korean Sport League
  • United Koreans in Japan football team
  • Korean Overseas Student League in Japan
  • Zainichi Korean Student Committee
  • Zainichi Korean Religious League
  • Zainichi Korean Buddhist Association
  • Zainichi Korean Historicism and Archaeology Association
  • Korean Democratic Woman Association in Japan
  • Korean Youth League in Japan (Chochong) [ja][a]
  • Korean Reunification Comrades' Association in Japan
  • Korean Peace Upholding Committee in Japan
  • Choson Sinbo Publishing House
  • Haku Sopang
  • Korean Youth Society
  • Korean Issue Research Institute
  • Chongryon Unified Enterprise Propulsion Committee
  • Compatriots' Marriage Introducing Center

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Not confused with Korean Youth League in Japan (Hancheong) [ja], the youth wing of the Union for Korean Democratic Reunification in Japan [ja].

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Japan to keep North Korea-linked association Chongryon under surveillance | the Japan Times". Archived from the original on 17 May 2019.
  2. ^ a b "재일본조선인총연합회 (在日本朝鮮人總聯合會)". Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean).
  3. ^ a b Takahashi, Kosuke (25 November 2020). "North Korea appointed next leader of its de facto embassy in Japan, sources say". NK News – North Korea News.
  4. ^ a b "2. Focal Issues of International Public Security in 2006." Ministry of Justice. Retrieved on 17 January 2009.
  5. ^ "The Mutual Gaze of Okinawans and Zainichi Koreans in Post-War Japan: From 1945 to the 1972 Okinawa Reversion".
  6. ^ a b John Pike. "Chosen Soren". Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
  7. ^ "Stage set for Japan to seize North Korea's 'embassy' Archived October 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine." Agence France-Presse. 18 June 2007. Retrieved on 15 January 2009.
  8. ^ "Ethnic Korean Groups in Japan Advance Korean Rights, Culture and Unification with Homeland". Voice of America. 12 December 2018. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  9. ^ a b c d e "Pyongyang's 'nuclear spies' – DW – 04/03/2017". Deutsche Welle.
  10. ^ a b c d e "North Korea is losing a crucial source of income: Koreans in Japan". Washington Post. 1 December 2021. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  11. ^ Armin Rosen (26 July 2012). "The Strange Rise and Fall of North Korea's Business Empire in Japan". The Atlantic. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
  12. ^ a b c "Chongryon still Pyongyang's pawn in covert operations: Former intelligence officer | NK News - North Korea News". www.nknews.org. Archived from the original on 18 April 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
  13. ^ Bell, Markus (2019). "Reimagining the homeland: Zainichi Koreans' transnational longing for North Korea" (PDF). The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology. 20 (1): 22–41. doi:10.1080/14442213.2018.1548642. ISSN 1444-2213. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2022 – via University of Sheffield.
  14. ^ "Spy's escape from North Korean 'hell'". BBC News. 6 January 2003. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  15. ^ "N. Korean defector says best to leave North alone for now". Findarticles.com. 3 November 2003. Archived from the original on 26 September 2008. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  16. ^ "MAR | Data | Chronology for Koreans in Japan". Minorities at Risk. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
  17. ^ 主体性の原則. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
  18. ^ "Lexical Leavings 13". www.gally.net. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
  19. ^ "Lexical Leavings 22". www.gally.net. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
  20. ^ たびかさなる試練. Archived from the original on 25 July 2010. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
  21. ^ "Yonhap News". Archived from the original on 3 October 2006. Retrieved 10 October 2006.
  22. ^ a b c d "Chongryun never gets out from under a cloud | the Japan Times". 10 July 2007. Archived from the original on 23 March 2020.
  23. ^ "在留外国人統計テーブルデータ（令和４年末現在）". 政府統計の総合窓口 (in Japanese). Retrieved 17 July 2023.
  24. ^ 최고인민회의 대의원으로 선출된 재일동포들. Choson Sinbo (in Korean). 15 March 2019. Archived from the original on 17 March 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
  25. ^ 朝鮮総連は約7万人 自民会合で公表 公安調査庁.
  26. ^ Balázs Szalontai and Changyong Choi, The Dilemmas of Dependency: China’s Controversial Role in North Korea’s Economic Transformation, Asian Survey, Vol. 53, Issue 2 (March/April 2013), p. 273.
  27. ^ 総連が平壌に飲食店３店 (Chosen Soren to open three restaurants in Pyongyang). Tokyo Shimbun (in Japanese). 17 March 2010. Archived from the original on 15 September 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2010.
  28. ^ People's Korea Archived 11 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  29. ^ "Ferry Ban Turns Tide on Korean Smuggling". The Washington Times. 16 October 2006. Archived from the original on 5 December 2021.
  30. ^ "U.S. peace delegation calls on Japanese government to end racist discrimination against Koreans in Japan". ANSWER Coalition. 2 December 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  31. ^ Lee (이), Shin-hye (신혜) (28 July 2011). 후쿠시마 조선학교 방사능 제거하러 가다. JPNews (in Korean). Retrieved 15 January 2012.
  32. ^ Baek (백), Na-ri (나리) (27 April 2011). 北성금 빼놓은 日에 조총련 `불쾌'. Yonhap News Agency (in Korean). Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
  33. ^ a b "No re-entry for Chongryon execs who go to Kim's funeral". The Asahi Shimbun. 23 December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 June 2013. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
  34. ^ "Top court approves seizure of Chongryon HQ for auction | the Japan Times Online". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 4 July 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
  35. ^ "Sunday Times Sri Lanka". Archived from the original on 11 July 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
  36. ^ "Real estate firm Marunaka makes payment for Chongryon's Tokyo headquarters". The Japan Times. 15 November 2014. Archived from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
  37. ^ 在日問題を扱ったナイキのＣＭ動画が話題 (in Japanese). The Dong-a Ilbo. 2 December 2020. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  38. ^ '재일 한국인' 차별 담은 나이키 광고 화제..日 누리꾼 반응은? (in Korean). The Dong-a Ilbo. 1 December 2020. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  39. ^ 有佑, 八島 (30 May 2022). 朝鮮総連が4年ぶりの大会 金正恩氏が1万字で権利問題を提起. 北朝鮮ニュース | KWT (in Japanese). Retrieved 8 July 2022.
  40. ^ Koh, Yoree (29 November 2010). "Standoff Amplifies Angst Over Pro-Pyongyang Schools in Japan - WSJ.com". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
  41. ^ "EDITORIAL: Subsidies for Korean schools". The Asahi Shimbun. Archived from the original on 14 September 2010. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
  42. ^ "学校法人金剛学園 | 韓国語と英語が学べるインタナショナル系私立学校 ABOUT「OKIS」". 学校法人金剛学園 | 韓国語と英語が学べるインタナショナル系私立学校 (in Japanese). Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  43. ^ "Debts, Mergers, Collapses and Foreclosures". 23 November 2009. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
  44. ^ a b "DPJ needs schooling on equality | the Japan Times". 7 March 2010. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019.
  45. ^ "Fukuoka Prefecture Faces Lawsuit After Tax Funds Used For North Korean School". Japan Probe. Archived from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  46. ^ "Ed-Info Japan News from September, to December, 2003". Childresearch.net. Archived from the original on 10 February 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  47. ^ 김 (Kim), 종현 (Jong-hyeon) (11 February 2010). 北, 日조총련계 학교에 460억엔 지원 (North Korea Sponsored 46 Billion Yen To Chosen Soren Schools). Yonhap News Agency (in Korean). Archived from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
  48. ^ "Kids at pro-North high schools fret tuition waiver snub | the Japan Times". 10 March 2010. Archived from the original on 28 May 2016.
  49. ^ 【疑惑の濁流】朝鮮学校無償化先送りで総連に分裂危機...偽装韓国籍、ソフト化もやまぬ生徒離れ. Sankei Shimbun 2010-05-03 (in Japanese). 1 May 2010. Archived from the original on 4 May 2010.
  50. ^ a b Shipper, Apichai (2010). "Nationalisms of and Against Zainichi Koreans in Japan" (PDF). Asian Politics & Policy. 2: 55–75. doi:10.1111/j.1943-0787.2009.01167.x.
  51. ^ Maher, John C.; Macdonald, Gaynor (12 November 2012). Diversity in Japanese Culture and Language. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-136-16016-5.
  52. ^ "Ford, Derek R., PHD – Faculty Bio".
  53. ^ "Curry Malott – West Chester University". Archived from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
  54. ^ "Kiyul Chung – the 21st Century". 9 April 2018.
  55. ^ "Ford, Derek R., Ph.D. - Faculty Bio". DePauw University. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  56. ^ "Curry Malott - WCU of PA". www.wcupa.edu. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  57. ^ "미국"과 "일본 속의 조선"이 처음 만나다／정기열. 7 February 2019. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019.
  58. ^ "'Nuclear confrontation with US is ending': Choson Sinbo". 8 February 2019. Archived from the original on 18 May 2019.
  59. ^ "Diplomatic moves in Tokyo, Seoul and Pyongyang precede Trump-Kim summit". 9 February 2019. Archived from the original on 23 April 2021.
  60. ^ "조선학교를 위한 련대투쟁을／금요행동에 230명이 참가, 남조선과 미국의 유지들이 합세". Choson Sinbo. 29 November 2022. Retrieved 15 December 2022.
  61. ^ Howley, Kevin (15 July 2024). "Koreans in Japan: An Audio Travelogue". CONSTITUENT NOTES. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  62. ^ "Howley, Kevin, Ph.D. - Faculty Bio". DePauw University. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  63. ^ a b c d e f g "Japan's North Koreans protest children's exclusion from free education". South China Morning Post. 2 November 2019. Archived from the original on 9 February 2020. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  64. ^ "Transcript of the Japan Considered Podcast for April 7, 2006". Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
  65. ^ "Transcript of the Japan Considered Podcast Volume 02, Number 14 - Relations with North Korea". Japanconsidered.com. 7 April 2006. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
  66. ^ a b c "Nuke test sparks backlash against North Korean community in Japan". North Korean Economy Watch. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
  67. ^ 朝鮮学校への街宣「地裁決定違反は１００万円」. Yomiuri Shimbun (in Japanese). 22 May 2010. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. Retrieved 26 May 2010.
  68. ^ "FM Spokesman Urges Japan to Stop Suppression of Chongryon". .korea-np.co.jp. Archived from the original on 10 February 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  69. ^ リード. Bekkoame.ne.jp. Archived from the original on 18 February 2003. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  70. ^ a b Hurst, Cindy (2006). "A Government-Sponsored Drug Trafficking Network" (PDF). Defense Technical Information Center.
  71. ^ "North Korean Supporters in Japan: Issues for U.S. Policy" (PDF). 9 July 2009.
  72. ^ "Tokyo police raid N Korea HQ". BBC News. 29 November 2001. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  73. ^ "Kang allegedly admits 2.6 bil. yen loans for Chongryon". Findarticles.com. 2001. Archived from the original on 15 June 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  74. ^ "JPRI Working Paper No. 101". www.jpri.org. Archived from the original on 22 June 2004. Retrieved 18 April 2018.
  75. ^ Buckley, Sarah (9 June 2003). "N Korea ferry struggling against the tide". BBC News. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  76. ^ "N Korea's Japan ferry 'spying'". BBC News. 29 January 2003. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  77. ^ "N Korea group's Tokyo offices 'seized'". BBC News. 9 September 2003. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  78. ^ "Yet Another Lost Decade? Whither Japan's North Korea Policy under Abe Shinzō". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 14 April 2013. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  79. ^ "Hyougo Sousa". Elufa.net (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 29 July 2007. microsoft ASF video file download
  80. ^ Tabuchi, Hiroko (3 March 2007). "North Koreans rally in Japan over alleged human rights abuses". The Globe and Mail.
  81. ^ "N Koreans protest 'abuse' in Japan".
  82. ^ "Chongryun HQ sold to ex-intelligence head". Search.japantimes.co.jp. 13 June 2007. Archived from the original on 11 April 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  83. ^ Jung (정), Gwang-il (광일) (13 September 2011). 북한지령 받고 재외선거 투표한다고?. JPNews (in Korean). Retrieved 27 September 2011.
  84. ^ "Police search home of Chongryon leader over suspected North Korea mushroom shipment". The Japan Times. 26 March 2015. Archived from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  85. ^ "Shots fired at North Korea-linked group HQ in Japan". Reuters. 23 February 2018. Retrieved 17 January 2019 – via www.reuters.com.
  86. ^ "Chongryon calls shooting an act of 'inhumane terrorism'：The Asahi Shimbun". The Asahi Shimbun. Archived from the original on 5 August 2018. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
  87. ^ 有佑, 八島 (4 June 2022). 朝鮮総連も驚く？ 金正恩氏が異例の1万字の書簡で課題提示その内容. 北朝鮮ニュース | KWT (in Japanese). Retrieved 8 July 2022.
  88. ^ "Tokyo riot policeman shoots self to death on street after duty - the Mainichi". mainichi.jp. Archived from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
  89. ^ 노, 재필 (12 December 2023). "정부, 조총련계 학교 '무단접촉' 영화인 조사‥권해효 씨 단체도". MBC 뉴스 (in Korean). Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  90. ^ Rosen, Armin (26 July 2012). "The Strange Rise and Fall of North Korea's Business Empire in Japan". The Atlantic. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  91. ^ Moon, Jae-yeon (12 December 2023). "통일부, 조선학교 접촉한 시민단체 영화감독 무더기 제동... 교류행사도 위법?". Hankook Ilbo. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  92. ^ 노, 재필 (12 December 2023). "정부, 조총련계 학교 '무단접촉' 영화인 조사‥권해효 씨 단체도". MBC 뉴스 (in Korean). Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  93. ^ Kim, So-youn (15 December 2023). "Koreans in Japan voice fears of witch hunt as Seoul investigates contact with Chongryon". Hankoryoreh. Retrieved 23 January 2024.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chongryon.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chongryon&oldid=1256289917"