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Type VII submarine

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U-995 Type VIIC/41 at the Laboe Naval Memorial near Kiel
Class overview
NameType VII
Builders
Operators
Preceded byType UB III
Succeeded byType XXI (Late-war replacement)
Subclasses
  • Built
    • Type VIIA
    • Type VIIB
    • Type VIIC
    • Type VIIC/41
    • Type VIID
    • Type VIIF
  • Not built
    • Type VIIC/42
    • Type VIIC/43
    • Type VIIE
Cost4,189,000 ℛ︁ℳ︁[2][3]
In commission1936 – 1970 (G-7)
Completed704[4]
Preserved1 (U-995)
General characteristics (Type VIIC)
Displacement
Length
  • 67.10 m (220 ft 2 in) o/a[1]
  • 50.50 m (165 ft 8 in) pressure hull[1]
Beam
Height9.60 m (31 ft 6 in)[1]
Draft4.74 m (15 ft 7 in)[1]
Propulsion2 × supercharged 6-cylinder 4-stroke diesel engines totalling 2,800–3,200 PS (2,100–2,400 kW; 2,800–3,200 shp). Max rpm: 470–490[1]
Speed
  • 17.7 knots (32.8 km/h; 20.4 mph) surfaced[1]
  • 7.6 knots (14.1 km/h; 8.7 mph) submerged[1]
Range
  • 8,500 nmi (15,700 km; 9,800 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) surfaced[1]
  • 80 nmi (150 km; 92 mi) at 4 knots (7.4 km/h; 4.6 mph) submerged[1]
Test depth
  • 230 m (750 ft)[1]
  • Calculated crush depth: 250–295 m (820–968 ft)[1]
Complement44–52 officers & ratings[1]
Armament

Type VII U-boats were the most common type of German World War II U-boat. 703 boats were built by the end of the war. The lone surviving example, U-995, is on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial located in Laboe, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.

At the start of the Second World War the Type VII class was together with the British U, S and T class and Dutch O 21 class one of the most advanced submarine classes in service.[7]

Conception

[edit]

The Type VII was based on earlier German submarine designs going back to the World War I Type UB III and especially the cancelled Type UG. The type UG was designed through the Dutch dummy company NV Ingenieurskantoor voor Scheepsbouw Den Haag (I.v.S) to circumvent the limitations of the Treaty of Versailles, and was built by foreign shipyards. The Finnish Vetehinen class also provided some of the basis for the Type VII design.

Type VII submarines were the most widely used U-boats of the war and were the most produced submarine class in history, with 704[4] built.[8] The type had several modifications. The Type VII was the most numerous U-boat type to be involved in the Battle of the Atlantic.

Subclasses

[edit]

Type VIIA

[edit]

Type VIIA U-boats were designed in 1933–34 as the first series of a new generation of attack U-boats.[9] Most Type VIIA U-boats were constructed at Deschimag AG Weser in Bremen with the exception of U-33 through U-36, which were built at Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft, Kiel. Despite the highly cramped living quarters, type VIIA U-boats were generally popular with their crews because of their fast crash dive speed, which was thought to give them more protection from enemy attacks than bigger, more sluggish types. Also, the smaller boat's lower endurance meant patrols were shorter. They were armed with four bow and one external stern torpedo tubes. Usually carrying 11 torpedoes on board, they were very agile on the surface and mounted the 8.8-centimetre (3.5 in) quick-firing deck gun with about 220 rounds.[9]

Ten Type VIIA boats were built between 1935 and 1937.[9]

The boat was powered on the surface by two MAN AG, 6-cylinder, 4-stroke M6V 40/46 diesel engines, giving a total of 2,100 to 2,310 brake horsepower (1,570 to 1,720 kW) at 470 to 485 rpm. When submerged it was propelled by two Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) GG UB 720/8 double-acting electric motors, giving a total of 750 horsepower (560 kW) at 322 rpm.[9]

Type VIIB

[edit]

After evaluating and comparing the commisioned Type I and Type VII U-boats, the Kriegsmarine asked for an improved version of the Type VII which would be named Type VIIB. Manoeuvrability was improved by installing one rudder in line with each of the two propellers so that the wash of the propellor had much more effect on the rudder. This change fitted well with another requirement of improved armament and reserve torpedo capacity. The external stern torpedo tube could now be mounted within the pressure hull, between the two rudders. The internal tube allowed for reloading and for firing on the surface. One spare torpedo for the stern tube was carried internally and two more spare torpedoes, one below the forward deck and one below the afterdeck, were stored externally in pressure-tight containers. To improve the range, no more fuel tanks could be added internally, external saddle tanks had to be added. The 33 tonnes of fuel in the saddletanks added 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km; 2,900 mi) of range at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). By installing superchargers on the diesel engines, power output increased by 20% and top speed increased by 1 knot (1.9 km/h; 1.2 mph). All these changes made the Type VIIB 2 m (6 ft 7 in) longer, but whilst surface displacement increased with 120 tons, the standard displacement rose only from 500 to 517 tons.[10][11]

On the surface the boat was powered by two supercharged MAN, 6 cylinder 4-stroke M6V 40/46 diesels (except for U-45 to U-50, U-83, U-85, U-87, U-99, U-100, and U-102, which were powered by two supercharged Germaniawerft 6-cylinder 4-stroke F46 diesels) giving a total of 2,800–3,200 metric horsepower (2,100–2,400 kW) at 470 to 490 rpm. When submerged, the boat was powered by two AEG GU 460/8-276 (except in U-45, U-46, U-49, U-51, U-52, U-54, U-73 to U-76, U-99 and U-100, which retained the BBC motor of the VIIA) electric motors, giving a total of 750 metric horsepower (550 kW) at 295 rpm. U-83 lacked a stern tube and carried only 12 torpedoes.[10]

Type VIIC

[edit]
A cross-section of a Type VIIC U-boat
Miniature model of a Type VIIC
Detailed drawing of a Type VIIC U-boat[12]

The Type VIIC was the workhorse of the German U-boat force, with 568 commissioned from 1940 to 1945. The first VIIC boat commissioned was the U-93 in 1940. The Type VIIC was an effective fighting machine and was seen almost everywhere U-boats operated, although its range of only 8,500 nautical miles was not as great as that of the larger Type IX (11,000 nautical miles), severely limiting the time it could spend in the far reaches of the western and southern Atlantic without refueling from a tender or U-boat tanker.[12] The VIIC came into service toward the end of the "First Happy Time"[Note 6] near the beginning of the war and was still the most numerous type in service when Allied anti-submarine efforts finally defeated the U-boat campaign in late 1943 and 1944.[12]

Type VIIC differed from the VIIB only in the addition of an active sonar and a few minor mechanical improvements, making them 2 feet longer and 8 tons heavier. Speed and range were essentially the same. Many of these boats were fitted with snorkels in 1944 and 1945.[12]

They had the same torpedo tube arrangement as their predecessors, except for U-72, U-78, U-80, U-554, and U-555, which had only two bow tubes, and for U-203, U-331, U-351, U-401, U-431, and U-651, which had no stern tube.[12]

On the surface the boats (except for U-88, U-90 and U-132 to U-136 which used MAN M6V40/46s) were propelled by two supercharged Germaniawerft, 6 cylinder, 4-stroke M6V 40/46 diesels totaling 2,800 to 3,200 PS (2,100 to 2,400 kW; 2,800 to 3,200 shp) at 470 to 490 rpm.[12]

For submerged propulsion, several different electric motors were used. Early models used the VIIB configuration of two AEG GU 460/8-276 electric motors, totaling 750 PS (550 kW; 740 shp) with a max rpm of 296, while newer boats used two BBC GG UB 720/8, Garbe, Lahmeyer & Co. RP 137/c or Siemens-Schuckert-Werke (SSW) GU 343/38-8 electric motors with the same power output as the AEG motors.[12]

Perhaps the most famous VIIC boat was U-96, featured in the movie Das Boot.[12]

U-flak "Flak Traps"

[edit]

The concept of the "U-flak" or "Flak Trap" originated on 31 August 1942, when U-256 was seriously damaged by aircraft. Rather than scrap the boat, it was decided to refit her as a heavily armed anti-aircraft boat intended to combat the losses being inflicted by Allied aircraft in the Bay of Biscay. Two 20 mm quadruple Flakvierling mounts and an experimental 37 mm automatic gun were installed on the U-flaks' decks. A battery of 86 mm line-carrying anti-aircraft rockets was tested (similar to a device used by the British in the defense of airfields), but this idea proved unworkable. At times, two additional single 20 mm guns were also mounted. The submarines' limited fuel capacities restricted them to operations only within the Bay of Biscay. Only five torpedoes were carried, preloaded in the tubes, to free up space needed for additional gun crew.

Four VIIC boats were modified for use as surface escorts for U-boats departing and returning to French Atlantic bases. These "U-flak" boats were U-441, U-256, U-621, and U-953. Conversion began on three others (U-211, U-263, and U-271) but none was completed and they were eventually returned to duty as standard VIIC attack boats.

The modified boats became operational in June 1943 and at first appeared to be successful against a surprised Royal Air Force. Hoping that the extra firepower might allow the boats to survive relentless British air attacks in the Bay of Biscay and reach their operational areas, Donitz ordered the boats to cross the bay in groups at maximum speed. The effort earned the Germans about two more months of relative freedom, until the RAF modified their tactics. When a pilot saw that a U-boat was going to fight on the surface, he held off attacking and called in reinforcements. When several aircraft had arrived, they all attacked at once. If the U-boat dived, surface vessels were called to the scene to scour the area with sonar and drop depth charges. The British also began equipping some aircraft with RP-3 rockets that could sink a U-boat with a single hit, finally making it too dangerous for a U-boat to attempt to fight it out on the surface regardless of its armament.[13] In November 1943, less than six months after the experiment began, it was discontinued. All U-flaks were converted back to standard attack boats and fitted with Turm 4, the standard anti-aircraft armament for U-boats at the time. (According to German sources, only six aircraft had been shot down by the U-flaks in six missions, three by U-441, and one each by U-256, U-621, and U-953.)

Type VIIC/41

[edit]
Type VIIC/41 U-995. Laboe Naval Memorial

In 1941 it was examined how U-boats could be improved. A first requirement for higher surface speed could not be met without large modifications to the design. A new design would disrupt current production of U-boats too much, so it was investigated how the diving depth could be increased. By saving 11.5 tons weight on simpler diesel and electric engine installations, the weight of the hull could be augmented with 10 tons. By increasing the thickness of the hull from 18.5 mm (0.73 in) to 21 mm (0.83 in) mm, diving depth increased by 20%. This improved design was called Type VIIC/41, the first were ordered in October 1941, and delivered in August 1943.[14] A total of 87 were delivered.[15] All of them from U-1271 onwards lacked the fittings to handle mines.

Today one Type VIIC/41 still exists: U-995 is on display at Laboe (north of Kiel), the only surviving Type VII in the world.

Type VIIC/42

[edit]

The greatest danger for a submerged U-boat was to be detected by Sonar. By coating the outer hull of a U-boat with rubber, it was hoped that the acoustic waves of the sonar could be absorbed rather than reflected. During 1941 tests with the rubber coating were executed with U-67, but these tests were disappointing and the project was abandoned. The only solution left was to increase once more the diving depth by using thicker steel for the pressure hull. The steel rolling equipment at the builders yard limited the maximum thickness to 28 mm (1.1 in). The weight of the hull increased from 68.3 tons to 154.3 tons, needing an increase from 4.7 m (15 ft 5 in) to 5 m (16 ft 5 in) in beam, in order to create more buoyancy. The saddle tanks were also enlargened so that range increased to 12,600 nautical miles (23,300 km; 14,500 mi). The maximum speed of 17 knots of a Type VIIC proved to be unsufficient for keeping in touch with the enemy during convoy battles and an increase in top speed was also required. The same diesel engines were used, but the hull was lengthened by 0.8 m to provide space for superchargers for the diesels. With the additional power, it was hoped speed would increase to 18.6 knots.[16]

Even before the design was finalized on 10 November 1942, a preliminary order of 12 boats had already been placed. By 17 April 1943 174 boats had been ordered from twelve shipbuilding yards, but due to problems with producing the new steel alloy for the reinforced pressure hull, construction was slow to start. Assembly at the yards had not yet started when all orders were cancelled on 24 July 1943 in favor of the new Type XXI.[17]

Type VIIC/43

[edit]

Early in 1943 it became obvious that Operations during convoy battles demanded for a better armament with a higher number of ready-to-fire torpedo tubes rather than fewer torpedo tubes with more reloads. During convoy battles an attacking U-boat rarely got the occasion to withdraw to reload and attack again. Therefore a new design VIIC/43 was made based on the Type VIIC/42 but with six bow torpedo tubes and two at the stern. But as the new deep-diving U-boats were urgently needed at the front, it was decided on 11 may 1943 to cancel this project as it would delay production of the Type VIIC/41 and VIIC/42.[18]

Type VIID

[edit]

At the beginning of World War II, there were four large Type XB minelayer under construction, intended for laying anchored SMA mines in distant waters. Any type of U-boat could lay TMB ground mines through torpedo tubes but still there was a need for a medium sized U-boat able to lay SMA mines on British and French coasts. In order to fill this gap, the Type VIIC was developped into a Type VIID SMA minelayer by simply adding a 9.8 m (32 ft 2 in) section with five mineshafts between the control room and the crew compartment of the petty officers. As the saddle tanks covered also the extra section, the fuel storage and range increased considerably. Six boats were ordered on 16 February 1940, the first was laid down on 1 October 1940.[19]

Type VIIE

[edit]

The Type VIIE was a project for trying out new V12 two-stroke diesel engines in a Type VIIC. This project remained a design, no construction was started.[20]

Type VIIF

[edit]

Up to mid-1941 it had been possible to provide U-boats spare torpedoes through surface supply ships on remote locations. But after the sinking of the German battleship Bismarck in May 1941 all supply ships were hunted down. Towards the end of 1941 attempts to resupply from the German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis ended in disaster when both the auxiliary cruiser and its supply ship Python were sunk by a British cruiser. The Type XIV supply boats were intendend for fuel resuply and carried only four spare torpedoes. The Big Type XB minelayer was also scheduled to be used as a supply boat but could carry only nine spares. Designing a whole new big torpedo transporter would eat away much resources both from planning and yards so the simplest and best idea was add an extra compartment to a Type VIIC, just like had been done before for the Type VIID minelayer. On 22 August 1941 four TypeVIIF were ordered, with expected delivery beginning of 1943.[21]

Specifications

[edit]
Class VIIA[22] VIIB[22] VIIC[22] VIIC/41[22] VIIC/42[23] VIID[24] VIIF[25]
Displacement
surfaced 		626 tonnes 753 tonnes 769 tonnes 759 tonnes 999 tonnes 965 tonnes 1084 tonnes
Displacement
submerged 		745 tonnes 857 tonnes 871 tonnes 860 tonnes 1099 tonnes 1080 tonnes 1181 tonnes
Length
overall 		64.51 m (211 ft 8 in) 66.5 m (218 ft 2 in) 67.2 m (220 ft 6 in) 67.2 m (220 ft 6 in) 68.7 m (225 ft 5 in) 76.9 m (252 ft 4 in) 77.63 m (254 ft 8 in)
Length
pressure hull 		44.5 m (146 ft) 48.8 m (160 ft 1 in) 50.50 m (165 ft 8 in) 50.50 m (165 ft 8 in) 50.9 m (167 ft) 59.8 m (196 ft 2 in) 60.4 m (198 ft 2 in)
Beam
overall 		5.85 m (19 ft 2 in) 6.20 m (20 ft 4 in) 6.20 m (20 ft 4 in) 6.20 m (20 ft 4 in) 6.85 m (22 ft 6 in) 6.28 m (20 ft 7 in) 7.3 m (23 ft 11 in)
Beam
pressure hull 		4.70 m (15 ft 5 in) 4.70 m (15 ft 5 in) 4.70 m (15 ft 5 in) 4.70 m (15 ft 5 in) 5.0 m (16 ft 5 in) 4.70 m (15 ft 5 in) 4.70 m (15 ft 5 in)
Draft 4.37 m (14 ft 4 in) 4.74 m (15 ft 7 in) 4.74 m (15 ft 7 in) 4.74 m (15 ft 7 in) 5.0 m (16 ft 5 in) 5.01 m (16 ft 5 in) 4.91 m (16 ft 1 in)
Power
surfaced 		1,700 kW[Note 7] 2,400 kW[Note 8] 2,400 kW[Note 9] 2,400 kW[Note 10] 2,400 kW[Note 10] 2,400 kW[Note 11] 2,400 kW[Note 12]
Power
submerged (Electric) 		560 kW[Note 13] 560 kW[Note 14] 560 kW[Note 15] 560 kW[Note 10] 560 kW[Note 10] 560 kW[Note 16] 560 kW[Note 12]
Surface
speed 		16 knots (29.6 km/h; 18.4 mph)[26] 17.9 knots (33.2 km/h; 20.6 mph) 17.7 knots (32.8 km/h; 20.4 mph) 17.7 knots (32.8 km/h; 20.4 mph) 18.6 knots (34.4 km/h; 21.4 mph) 16.7 knots (30.9 km/h; 19.2 mph) 17.6 knots (32.6 km/h; 20.3 mph)
Submerged
speed 		8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph) 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph) 7.6 knots (14.1 km/h; 8.7 mph) 7.6 knots (14.1 km/h; 8.7 mph) 7.6 knots (14.1 km/h; 8.7 mph) 7.3 knots (13.5 km/h; 8.4 mph) 7.6 knots (14.1 km/h; 8.7 mph)
Surface
range at 10 knots 		6,200 nmi (11,500 km; 7,100 mi) 8,700 nmi (16,100 km; 10,000 mi) 8,500 nmi (15,700 km; 9,800 mi) 8,500 nmi (15,700 km; 9,800 mi) 12,600 nmi (23,300 km; 14,500 mi) 11,200 nmi (20,700 km; 12,900 mi) 14,700 nmi (27,200 km; 16,900 mi)
Submerged
range at 4 knots 		74–94 nmi (137–174 km; 85–108 mi) 90 nmi (170 km; 100 mi) 80 nmi (150 km; 92 mi) 80 nmi (150 km; 92 mi) 80 nmi (150 km; 92 mi) 69 nmi (128 km; 79 mi) 75 nmi (139 km; 86 mi)
Maximum
operating depth 		220 m (720 ft) 220 m (720 ft) 230 m (750 ft) 250 m (820 ft) 270 m (890 ft) 200 m (660 ft) 200 m (660 ft)
Crush depth 230–250 m (750–820 ft) 230–250 m (750–820 ft) 250–295 m (820–968 ft) 275–325 m (902–1,066 ft) 350–400 m (1,150–1,310 ft) 220–240 m (720–790 ft) 220–240 m (720–790 ft)
Complement 42–46 44–48 44–52 44–52 44–52 46–52 46–52
Deck gun 8.8 cm SK C35 naval gun, with 220 rounds none
Anti-aircraft
guns 		2 cm FlaK 30 Various 2 × 2 cm Flak C30
with 4,380 rounds		 3.7 cm Flak,
with 1,195 rounds
2 × C30 20 mm,
with 4,380 rounds
Bow tubes 4[Note 17]
Stern tubes 1[Note 18]
Torpedoes
(maximum) 		11 14 14 14 16 14 14 / 39[Note 19]
Mines 22 TMA mines
or 33 TMB mines 		26 TMA mines[Note 20] 15 SMA mines in
vertical chutes and
either 26 TMA mines or
39 TMB mines 		none
Number
commissioned 		10 24 568 91 0[Note 21] 6 4

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ post war; U-1057, U 1058, U 1064, U 1305 as TS-14, S-81 – S-84 respectively
  2. ^ post war – U-926, U-1202, and U-995 as Kya, Kinn, and Kaura respectively
  3. ^ U-570 as HMS Graph (P715)
  4. ^ U-471/Le Millé (S 609), U-766/Laubie (S 610)
  5. ^ G-7/German submarine U-573
  6. ^ U-boat ace Otto Kretchmer took issue with use of the term "Happy Time." He didn't see how the U-boat war could ever be characterized as having a "Happy Time" when losses of U-boats and crews were running at 50%. (See interview on YouTube.)
  7. ^ 2 MAN, 6 cylinder 4-stroke M6V 40/46 diesels totalling 2,100 – 2,310bhp. Max rpm: 470–485.
  8. ^ 2 supercharged MAN, 6 cylinder, 4-stroke M6V 40/46 diesels totalling 2,800 – 3,200bhp. Max rpm: 470–490.
  9. ^ 2 supercharged Germaniawerft, 6 cylinder, 4-stroke M6V 40/46 diesels totalling 2,800 – 3,200bhp. Max rpm: 470–490.
  10. ^ a b c d Same as VIIC
  11. ^ 2 supercharged Germaniawerft, 6 cylinder, 4-stroke F46 diesels totalling 2,800 – 3,200bhp. Max rpm: 470–490.
  12. ^ a b Same as VIID.
  13. ^ 2 Brown, Boveri & Cie GG UB 720/8 double-acting electric motors, totalling 750shp. Max rpm: 322.
  14. ^ 2 AEG GU 460/8-276 electric motors, totalling 750shp. Max rpm: 295.
  15. ^ Same as VIIA or VIIB, 2 Siemens-Schuckert-Werke GU 343/38-8 electric motors, totalling 750shp and max rpm: 296 or 2 Garbe Lahmeyer RP 137/c electric motors, totalling 750shp and max rpm: 296.
  16. ^ 2 AEG GU 460/8-276 electric motors, totalling 750shp. Max rpm: 285
  17. ^ A small number of VIIC boats were fitted with only two forward tubes
  18. ^ A small number of VIIC boats were fitted with no stern tube
  19. ^ 39 Torpedoes were carried in the transport role
  20. ^ Type VIIC/41 boats from U-1271 on lacked mine handling equipment
  21. ^ None of the boats were ready by the end of the war

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Helgason, Guðmundur. "Type VIIC". U-Boat War in World War II. Uboat.net. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
  2. ^ Gröner, Erich (1990). German Warships 1815–1945. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. p. 77. ISBN 0-87021-790-9.
  3. ^ Poirier, Michel Thomas (20 October 1999). "Results of the German and American Submarine Campaigns of World War II". Archived from the original on 9 April 2008. The cost of a Type VII is estimated at US$2.25 million (equivalent to $30 million in 2023).
  4. ^ a b Westwood (1984), p. 9.
  5. ^ Möller, Eberhard; Brack, Werner (2004). The Encyclopedia of U-Boats. London: Chatham. pp. 69–73. ISBN 1-85367-623-3.
  6. ^ Campbell 1985, p. 251.
  7. ^ van den Pol (1989), p. 352.
  8. ^ "Type VII U-Boat". German U-Boat. Uboataces.com. Retrieved 13 February 2010.
  9. ^ a b c d Helgason, Guðmundur. "Type VIIA". U-Boat War in World War II. Uboat.net. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
  10. ^ a b Helgason, Guðmundur. "Type VIIB". U-Boat War in World War II. Uboat.net. Retrieved 13 February 2010.
  11. ^ Rössler 2001, pp. 105–108.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h Helgason, Guðmundur. "Type VIIC". U-Boat War in World War II. Uboat.net. Retrieved 13 February 2010.
  13. ^ Busch, Harald (1955). U-Boats at War. New York: Ballantine Books.
  14. ^ Rössler 2001, pp. 155–156.
  15. ^ Rössler 2001, p. 160.
  16. ^ Rössler 2001, p. 157.
  17. ^ Rössler 2001, pp. 158–160.
  18. ^ Rössler 2001, pp. 160, 234.
  19. ^ Rössler 2001, pp. 146–148.
  20. ^ Rössler 2001, p. 336.
  21. ^ Rössler 2001, p. 162.
  22. ^ a b c d Gröner 1991, pp. 43–46.
  23. ^ Gröner 1991, pp. 65–66.
  24. ^ Gröner 1991, pp. 66–67.
  25. ^ Gröner 1991, p. 67.
  26. ^ Gallop, Alan (November 2014). U-boat owners' workshop manual : 1936–45 (type VIIA, B, C and type VIIC/41. ISBN 978-0-85733-404-6. OCLC 894127110.

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Campbell, John (1985). Naval Weapons of World War Two. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-459-4.
  • Gröner, Erich; Jung, Dieter; Maass, Martin (1991). German Warships 1815–1945, U-boats and Mine Warfare Vessels. Vol. 2. Translated by Thomas, Keith; Magowan, Rachel. London: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0-85177-593-4.
  • Rossler, Eberhard (1981). The U-Boat. Annapolis, Maryland (USA): Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-966-9.
  • Rössler, Gerhard (2001). The U-boat : the evolution and technical history of German submarines. London: Casell. ISBN 0304361208.
  • Stern, Robert C. (1991). Type VII U-boats. Annapolis, Maryland (USA): Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-828-3.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Nowarra, Heinz J. (1992). Grey Wolves of the Sea: German U-Boat Type VII. Schiffer Military History. Vol. 63. West Chester: Schiffer Publishing. ISBN 0-88740-401-4.
  • Showell, Jak P. Mallmann (2006). The U-boat Century: German Submarine Warfare 1906-2006. London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 9781861762412.
  • Sharpe, Peter (1998). U-Boat Fact File: Detailed Service Histories of the Submarines Operated by the Kriegsmarine 1935-1945. Leicester: Midland Publishing. ISBN 1-85780-072-9.
  • van den Pol, E. (1989). "Aspects of submarines - Part I: Some notes on development". Schip en Werf. Vol. 56, no. 10. Rotterdam: Wyt & Zonen. pp. 352–358. ISSN 0036-6099.
  • Westwood, David (1984). The Type VII U-boat. Anatomy of the Ships. London: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0-85177-314-1.
  • Williamson, Gordon (2005). Wolf Pack: The Story of the U-boat in World War II. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-872-3.
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