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Germanic dragon

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Urnes-style runestone U 887, Skillsta, Sweden, showing a runic dragon and a bipedal winged dragon.

Worms, wurms or wyrms (Old English: wyrm, Old Norse: ormʀ, ormr, Old High German: wurm), meaning serpent, are archaic terms for dragons (Old English: dracan, Old Norse: dreki, Old High German: trahho) in the wider Germanic mythology and folklore, in which they are often portrayed as large venomous snakes and hoarders of gold. Especially in later tales, however, they share many common features with other dragons in European mythology, such as having wings.

Prominent worms attested in medieval Germanic works include the dragon that killed Beowulf, the central dragon in the Völsung Cycle – Fáfnir, Níðhöggr, and the great sea serpent, Jǫrmungandr, including subcategories such as lindworms and sea serpents.

Origin, appearance and terminology

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In early depictions, as with dragons in other cultures, the distinction between Germanic dragons and regular snakes is blurred, with both being referred to as: "worm" (Old English: wyrm, Old Norse: ormʀ, ormr), "snake" (Old English: snaca, Old Norse: snókr, snákr), "adder" (Old English: nǣdre, Old Norse: naðr), and more, in the sagas, all being old Germanic synonyms for serpent and thereof (compare the names for the common legless lizard: blindworm, hazelworm, slowworm, deaf adder etc). The descendent term worm remains used in modern English to refer to dragons, such as those similar to snakes or without wings,[1] while the Old English form wyrm has been borrowed back into modern English to mean "dragon".[2] The Nordic descendants of Old Norse: ormr, beyond being the common word for snake in Swedish, Norwegian and Faroese, remain a poetic or archaic word for dragons and similar mythological serpentine creatures in Swedish: orm, Icelandic: ormur, and Faroese: ormur.[3][4][5]

An early appearance of the Old English word dracan (oblique singular of draca, "dragon") in Beowulf[6]

The word "dragon", also appear: Old English: draca, Old West Norse: dreki, Old East Norse: draki, meaning "dragon, sea serpent or sea monster" etc, stemming from Latin: dracō ("huge serpent or dragon").[7][8][9] The form "dragon" in modern English stems from Old French: dragon, while the Germanic Old English form survives as drake.[9][8]

A poem, by 11th-century Icelandic skáld Þjóðólfr Arnórsson, manages to use all four above mentioned terms in a single poem about Sigurd the dragon slayer, based on a barfight between a blacksmith and a leather worker, which he supposedly composed spontaneously upon request:[10]

In Fáfnismál, the dragon Fáfnir is described as flightless and snake-like, and is referred to as an ormr.[12][13] In the later Völsunga saga, however, he has shoulders, suggesting legs, wings or both, and is referred to as both a dreki and an ormr.[14] Similarly, the dragon in Beowulf is referred to as both a wyrm and a draca, although in some sources such as Ketils saga hœngs and the 14th century romance saga Konráðs saga keisarasonar, ormar and drekar are portrayed as distinct beings, with winged dragons sometimes specified as flogdreka (flying dragons).[15] To address the difficulties with categorising Germanic dragons, the term drakorm (Swedish for "dragon serpent") has been proposed, referring to beings described as either a dreki or ormr.[16] Irish historian A. Walsh used the term "worm-dragon" in 1922 to describe the runic dragon like ornament found side by side with the Celtic interlaced patterns on the Cross of Cong from 1123 AD.[1]

The evolution of wingless and legless worms and lindworms to flying, four-legged romanesque dragons in Germanic folklore and literature is most likely due to influence from continental Europe that was facilitated by Christianisation and the increased availability of translated romances. It has thus been proposed that the description in Völuspá of Níðhöggr with feathers and flying after Ragnarök is a late addition and potentially a result of the integration of pagan and Christian imagery.[17][18][19]

The Norwegian sea serpent as depicted on Olaus Magnus's Carta marina (1539) – greyscale original

There are also dragon-like monsters in Germanic folklore which continue the use of worm or other synonyms in the ambiguous sense of either dragon or snake, such as lindworm (Swedish: lindorm, German: Lindwurm) and sea serpent (Swedish: sjöorm, German: Seeschlange), the latter popularized by Swede Olaus Magnus trough his Carta marina (1539) and A Description of the Northern Peoples (1555), in the latter describing a sea serpent found in Bergen, Norway. Related are also the French guivre/vouivre (from Old French for "snake") and English wyvern (Middle English: wyver, from wivre), ultimately deriving from Latin: vīpera ("viper").[20]

List of Germanic dragons

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Main article: List of dragons in mythology and folklore § European dragons

Furthermore, there are many sagas with dragons in them, including Þiðreks saga, Övarr-Odds saga, and Sigrgarðs saga frækna.[27]

Common traits and roles

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Guarding treasure

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Fafnir guards the gold hoard in this illustration by Arthur Rackham to Richard Wagner's Siegfried.

The association between dragons and hoards of treasure is widespread in Germanic literature, however the motifs surrounding gold are absent from many accounts including the in Sigurð story in Þiðreks saga af Bern.[28]

In the Völsung Cycle, Fáfnir was a dwarf who, upon claiming a hoard of treasure, including the ring Andvaranaut, transforms into a dragon. Fáfnir's brother, Regin reforges the sword Gram from broken shards and gives it to the hero Sigurð who uses it to kill the dragon by waiting in a hole until the worm slithers over and exposes his underbelly. While dying Fáfnir speaks with Sigurð and shares mythological knowledge. Sigurð then cooks and tastes the dragon's heart, allowing the hero to understand the speech of birds who tell him to kill Regin, which he does and then takes the hoard for himself.[13] In Beowulf, it is Sigmund (the father of Sigurð in Old Norse tradition) who kills a dragon and takes its hoard.[15]

In Beowulf, the dragon that the poem's eponymous hero is awoken from the burial mound in which it dwells when a cup from its hoard is stolen, leading it to seek vengeance from the Geats. After both the dragon and Beowulf die, the treasure is reinterred in the king's barrow.[15] The Old English poem, Maxims II further states:

In Ragnars saga loðbrókar, Thóra, the daughter of a Geatish earl, is given a snake by her father which she puts on top of a pile of gold. This makes both the snake and the treasure grow until the dragon is so large its head touches its tail.[31] The image of an encircled snake eating its own tail is also seen with Jörmungandr.[24] The hero Ragnar Lodbrok later wins the hand of Thóra and the treasure by slaying the dragon.[31] The motif of gold causing a snake-like creature to grow into a dragon is seen in the Icelandic tale of the Lagarfljót Worm recorded in the 19th century.[32]

Breathing fire and atter

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One of the four dragon heads adorning the ridges of the Borgund Stave Church, possibly depicted breathing fire.

Dragons with poisonous breath, atter, are believed to predate those who breathe fire in Germanic folklore and literature, consistent with the theory that Germanic dragons developed from traditions regarding wild snakes, some of whom produce venom.[14] The Nine Herbs Charm describes nine plants being used to overcome the venom of a slithering wyrm. It tells that Wōden defeats the wyrm by striking it with nine twigs, breaking it into nine pieces.[33]

In Eddic poetry, both Fáfnir and the sea serpent Jörmungandr are described as having poisonous breath.[13] In Gylfaginning it is told that during Ragnarök, Thor will kill Jörmungandr; however, after taking nine steps, he will be in turn killed by the worm's venom.[24] A similar creature from later Orcadian folklore is the poisonous stoor worm which was killed by the hero Assipattle, falling into the sea and forming Iceland, Orkney, Shetland and the Faroe Islands. As in the English tale of the Linton worm, the stoor worm is killed by burning its insides with peat.[34]

Beowulf is one of the earliest examples of a fire-breathing dragon, yet it is also referred to as "the poison scourge" (attorsceaðan). After burning homes and land in Geatland, it fights the eponymous hero of the poem who bears a metal shield to protect himself from the fire. The dragon wounds him but is slain by the king's thane Wiglaf. Beowulf later succumbs to the dragon's poison and dies. The other dragon mentioned in the poem is further associated with fire, melting from its own heat once slain by Sigmund.[15] Both fire and venom are also spat by dragons in the Chivalric saga Sigurðr saga þögla and in Nikolaus saga erkibiskups II, written around 1340 CE, in which the dragon is sent by God to teach an English deacon to become more pious.[14]

Narrative importance

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In Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics, Tolkien argued that the only dragons of significance in northern literature are Fáfnir and that which killed Beowulf. Similarly, other scholars such as Kathryn Hume have argued that the overabundance of dragons, along with other supernatural beings, in later riddarasögur results in monsters serving only as props to be killed by heroes.[35]

Material culture

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Carved dragon heads

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Longships known as "dragons" (Old Norse: drekar) were ships used by the Norse in the Medieval period that predominantly featured carved prows in the shape of dragons and other animalistic creatures.[19][36][37] One version of the Icelandic Landnámabók states that the ancient Heathen law of Iceland required any ship having a figurehead in place on one's ship "with gaping mouth or yawning snout" to remove the carving before coming in sight of land because it would frighten the landvættir.[38]

Stave churches are sometimes decorated by carved dragon heads which has been proposed to have originated in the belief in their apotropaic function.[17][39]

Depictions of entire dragons

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Medieval depictions of worms carved in stone feature both in Sweden and the British Isles. In Sweden, runic inscriptions dated to around the 11th century often show a lindworm bearing the text encircling the remaining picture on the stone.[40] Some Sigurð stones such as U 1163, Sö 101 (the Rasmund carving) and Sö 327 (the Gök inscription) show a Sigurð thrusting a sword through the worm which is identified as Fáfnir.[41] The killing of Fáfnir is also potentially pictured on four crosses from the Isle of Man and a now lost fragment, with a similar artistic style, from the church at Kirby Hill in England.[42][43][44]

Wooden carvings from the Hylestad Stave Church of scenes from the Völsunga saga include Sigurð killing Fáfnir, who is notably shown with two legs and two wings.[45]

The fishing trip described in Hymiskviða in which Thor catches Jörmungandr has been linked to a number of stones in Scandinavia and England such as the Altuna Runestone and the Hørdum stone.[46][47][48]

Visual depictions of Germanic dragons

See also

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  • Hyrrokkin, a gýgr in Norse mythology who uses snakes as reins
  • Ormhäxan, a picture stone from Gotland depicting a woman with snakes

Citations

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  1. ^ a b worm.
  2. ^ wyrm.
  3. ^ ormr.
  4. ^ orm.
  5. ^ ormur.
  6. ^ Beowulf; a heroic poem of the 8th century, with tr., note and appendix by T. Arnold, 1876, p. 196.
  7. ^ dreki.
  8. ^ a b drake.
  9. ^ a b dragon.
  10. ^ "Norse Serpents and Dragons (with Robert Cutrer)". youtube.com. Jackson Crawford. 29 November 2023. Retrieved 10 January 2024. timestamp: 25:36
  11. ^ a b "ÞjóðA Lv 6II". skaldic.org. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
  12. ^ Fáfnismál (ON).
  13. ^ a b c d Bellows, Henry Adam (2004). The Poetic Edda : The Mythological Poems. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 0486437108.
  14. ^ a b c d Acker 2013, pp. 53–57.
  15. ^ a b c d e Beowulf.
  16. ^ Johansen, Birgitta (1997). "Ormalur. Aspekter av tillvaro och landskap". Stockholm Studies in Archeology. 14.
  17. ^ a b Simek 1993.
  18. ^ Somerville & McDonald 2013, p. 125.
  19. ^ a b c Fee 2011, pp. 8–10.
  20. ^ wyvern.
  21. ^ Bane, Theresa (2016). Encyclopedia of beasts and monsters in myth, legend and folklore. Jefferson, North Carolina. ISBN 978-0-7864-9505-4. OCLC 930364175. Archived from the original on 27 March 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2022.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  22. ^ Jesse L. Byock (1990). The Saga of the Volsungs : the Norse epic of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-585-08136-0. OCLC 44964973.
  23. ^ Thompson 2015.
  24. ^ a b c d Young, Jean (1992). The prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson : tales from Norse mythology. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. p. 89. ISBN 9780520273054.
  25. ^ a b c Rauer, Christine (2000). "The Dragon Episode". Beowulf and the Dragon: Parallels and Analogues. D. S. Brewer. pp. 24–51. ISBN 0-85991-592-1.
  26. ^ Saxo (Grammaticus) (1894). The First Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus. Nutt. Archived from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
  27. ^ Acker, Paul (2012). "Death by Dragons". Viking and Medieval Scandinavia. 8: 1–21. doi:10.1484/J.VMS.1.103192. ISSN 1782-7183. JSTOR 45020180. Archived from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
  28. ^ Cutrer 2012, p. 4.
  29. ^ "Maxims II (Old English)". sacred-texts.com. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
  30. ^ "Maxims II, Old English Poetry Project, (Modern English)". oldenglishpoetry.camden.rutgers.edu. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
  31. ^ a b Crawford, Jackson (2017). The Saga of the Volsungs : with the Saga of Ragnar Lothbrok. Indianapolis: Hackett. pp. 89–91. ISBN 9781624666346.
  32. ^ Árnason, Jón (1862). Íslenzkar Þjóðsögur og Æfintýri. Vol. I. Ormurinn í Lagarfljóti.
  33. ^ "Nigon Wyrta Galdor: "The Nine Herbs Charm"". Mimisbrunnr.info: Developments in Ancient Germanic Studies. 20 February 2022. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2022.
  34. ^ Marwick, Ernest W. (2000). The folklore of Orkney and Shetland. Edinburgh: Birlinn. ISBN 978-1-84158-048-7.
  35. ^ Cutrer 2012, p. 5.
  36. ^ Jesch, Judith (2001). "Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse". Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age. pp. 119–179. ISBN 9780851158266.
  37. ^ E. Magnússon (1906). Notes on shipbuilding & nautical terms of old in the North. Magnússon. p. 45.
  38. ^ de Vries, p. 260, referring to Ulfljót's Law, at Google Books (Old Norse) [1] Archived 17 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine
  39. ^ Bugge (1994), s. 48
  40. ^ Düwel 2005, p. 114-115.
  41. ^ Millet 2008, p. 163.
  42. ^ Millet 2008, p. 160.
  43. ^ McKinnell 2015, p. 62.
  44. ^ McKinnell 2015, p. 61.
  45. ^ Gunnar Nordanskog, Föreställd hedendom: tidigmedeltida skandinaviska kyrkportar i forskning och historia, 2006, p. 241. ISBN 978-91-89116-85-6
  46. ^ Meulengracht Sørensen (1986) p. 260, (2002) p. 123.
  47. ^ Kopár, Lilla (2018) [2016]. "Eddic poetry and the imagery of stone monuments". In Larrington, Carolyne; Quinn, Judy; Schorn, Brittany (eds.). A Handbook to Eddic Poetry: Myths and Legends of Early Scandinavia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–08. ISBN 978-1-316-50129-0.
  48. ^ Fee, Christopher R.; Leeming, David A. (2001). Gods, Heroes, & Kings: The Battle for Mythic Britain. Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 0-19-513479-6. Archived from the original on 23 February 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2022.

References

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Primary

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Secondary

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