Kingdom of Rwanda
Kingdom of Rwanda Ubwami bw'u Rwanda (Kinyarwanda) Koninkrijk Roeanda (Dutch) Royaume du Rwanda (French) Königreich Ruanda (German) | |||||||
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| c. 15th century–1961 | |||||||
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| Status | Independent state (15th century–1897) Part of German East Africa (1897–1916) Part of Ruanda-Urundi (1922–1961) | ||||||
| Capital | Nyanza | ||||||
| Common languages |
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| Government | Absolute monarchy | ||||||
| Mwami | |||||||
• 15th century | Ruganzu I Bwimba[1] | ||||||
• 1959–1961 | Kigeli V (3rd Dynasty) (last king) | ||||||
| History | |||||||
• Established | c. 15th century | ||||||
| 1 July 1961 | |||||||
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| Today part of | Rwanda | ||||||
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The Kingdom of Rwanda (also known as the Nyiginya Kingdom or Nyginya Dynasty[2]) was a Bantu kingdom in modern-day Rwanda, which grew to be ruled by a Tutsi monarchy.[3] It was one of the most centralized kingdoms in Central and East Africa.[4] It was later annexed under German and Belgian colonial rule while retaining some of its autonomy. The Tutsi monarchy was abolished in 1961 after ethnic violence erupted between the Hutu and the Tutsi during the Rwandan Revolution which started in 1959.[5] After a 1961 referendum, Rwanda became a Hutu-dominated republic and received its independence from Belgium in 1962.[6]
After the revolution and abolition of the monarchy, the deposed Kigeli V eventually settled in the United States, and since then monarchists have maintained a court-in-exile outside of Rwanda. The current pretender to the Rwandan throne is Yuhi VI.[7]
History
The later lands of Rwanda were originally inhabited by the Twa, who largely lived as hunters, gatherers, and potters. Hutu people migrated to the area around 1000 and engaged in farming.[8][9] They also developed a political system based upon highly centralized governance and created a number of principalities.[10] Waves of cattle-raising Tutsi moved south into the region from the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries.[8][9] A series of villages in the northeastern part of the country came to be governed by Tutsi chiefs whose warriors and attendants competed for lands.[11] In general, the different Hutu and Tutsi groups which cleared forested areas in Rwanda subsequently claimed a heritable ownership of this land, resulting in the development of lineage claims to certain territories (dubbed ubukonde). Lineage members traditionally maintained autonomy in their respective territories, limiting the early power of the developing statelets inside Rwanda.[12]
The true start date of the Kingdom of Rwanda is unknown, as its history was traditionally passed down in oral stories of uncertain reliability. Traditionally, the foundation of Rwanda was attributed to the legendary hero Gihanga who was also credited with the invention of fire and the creation of the cow.[13][14] Though Gihanga is considered to be a historical figure by many Rwandans, historians have deeemed him to be a mythic figure.[14] Either way, the historic origins of the eventual kingdom of Rwanda seem to date to a period from the 14th to the 16th century, when a small chiefdom centered on the hill of Gasabo emerged. This early realm, described as "Rwanda of Gasabo" by historians,[15] gradually expanded and united other chiefdoms into a larger, centralized state around Lake Muhazi, near Kigali.[9][10] Researchers differ when identifying the earliest "king" of Rwanda; historians Rutayisire Byanafashe and Paul Rutayisire attribute this role to Ruganzu Bwimba, whereas historian Jan Vansina regarded Ruganzu II Ndoli as the true founder of the kingdom.[16] Either way, what is now central Rwanda was absorbed by the expanding realm in the 16th century, and outlying Hutu communities were subdued by the Ruganzu II Ndoli in the 17th century.[17]
As the kings centralized their power and authority, they distributed land among individuals rather than allowing it to be passed down through lineage groups, of which many hereditary chiefs had been Hutu. Most of the chiefs appointed by the Mwamis were Tutsi.[18] The redistribution of land, enacted between 1860 and 1895 by Kigeli IV Rwabugiri, resulted in an imposed patronage system, under which appointed Tutsi chiefs demanded manual labor in return for the right of Hutus to occupy their land. This system left Hutus in a serf-like status with Tutsi chiefs as their feudal masters.[19][20] Kigeli IV Rwabugiri also strengthened and reformed the royal army by introducing a conscription system and new, permanent military units.[21]
Under Mwami Kigeli IV Rwabugiri, Rwanda became a truly expansionist state. The kingdom significantly grew in territory, conquering a series of smaller kingdoms and principalities.[22] Rwabugiri did not bother to assess the ethnic identities of conquered peoples and simply labeled all of them "Hutu". The title "Hutu", therefore, came to be a trans-ethnic identity associated with subjugation. While further disenfranchising Hutus socially and politically, this helped to solidify the idea that "Hutu" and "Tutsi" were socioeconomic, not ethnic, distinctions. In fact, one could kwihutura, or "shed Hutuness", by accumulating wealth and rising through the social hierarchy.[23] The borders of the kingdom were rounded out in the late 19th century by Mwami Rwabugiri, who is regarded as Rwanda's greatest king. By the end of his reign, Rwanda was a unified state with a centralized military structure.[24]
Owing to its isolation, Rwanda's engagement with the Indian Ocean slave trade was extremely limited until the end of the 19th century. The first Europeans did not arrive in Rwanda until 1894, making Rwanda one of the last regions of Africa to have been explored by Europeans.[25] When Kigeli IV Rwabugiri unexpectedly died from illness in late 1895, his state began to enter a phase of crisis. His successor, Mibambwe IV Rutarindwa, was challenged by a clique headed by the powerful Bega clan under Queen Mother Kanjogera.[26][27] The conflicts at court escalated in 1896, when an armed Congo Free State expedition attempted to annex southwestern Rwanda. Mibambwe IV Rutarindwa sent the best and most loyal units of the royal army against the invaders, but the Rwandans were heavily defeated in the Battle of Shangi. Though the Congolese still retreated due to internal problems, the defeat greatly damaged Mibambwe IV Rutarindwa's political position,[28][29] and weakened the Rwandan royal army.[30] The Bega faction exploited this by launching the Rucunshu Coup, overthrowing Mibambwe IV Rutarindwa and driving him to suicide. In his place, Kanjogera's underage son Yuhi V Musinga as installed as a puppet ruler.[31][32] Rwanda subsequently fell into a period of infighting and unrest.[32][33]
In 1897, Germany established a presence in Rwanda with the formation of an alliance with the king, beginning the colonial era.[34]
Government
Under the king, society was organized in a feudal system in which the king had ultimate authority and his subjects were those who lived in his territory.[35] Feudal allegiance bound subjects to the ruler by a scheme of protection and service tied to property.[36] The system was called ubuhake, a concept of mutual relationships, in which a patron provided cattle or land and security in return for a peasant's loyalty and uburetwa, work and services due to the patron.[9][37] The peasant did not own the cattle or land, but instead was entitled to the milk and calves or the use of the pastures, similar to a tenancy.[9][38]
The position of Queen Mother was an important one, managing the royal household and being heavily involved in court politics.[39] When their sons ascended to the throne, mothers would take a new name. This would be composed of nyira-, meaning "mother of", followed by, usually, the regal name of the new king; only kings named Mutara do not follow this convention, their mothers taking the name Nyiramavugo (mother of good counsel).[40]
Military
Jean-Marie Kagabo describes the command system of the Rwandan military:[41][42]
The king would choose either a Tutsi or a Hutu; his duties lay in the military domain, given that each Rwandan male necessarily belonged to an army unit (militia). Rwandan historian Alexis Kagame (1972) cites the example of two famous army chiefs of Hutu origin. The first was Bikotwa, the son of Rubashamuheto, whom King Kigeli IV Rwabugiri appointed to head two army divisions: Inzirabwoba and Indirira. The second was Nkiramacumu, who succeeded the Tutsi Chief Nkundukozera as head of the same Inzirabwoba a few years later.
King Kigeli IV Rwabugiri, invaded the neighboring Kingdom of Ankole, bringing with him as many warriors "as the cloud of midges", and many women, and cattle, intending to permanently occupy Ankole. Kigeri's troops rapidly overran Ankole and chased Ntare V (the king of Ankole at that time) all the way to the northeast near Ankole's border with Buganda. King Kigeri IV Rwabugiri brought his own cattle and women from Rwanda because he considered the cattle of Ankole too ugly to supply him with milk, and Ankole women too ugly to sleep with.[43]
See also
References
- ^ "Kingdom of Rwanda | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
- ^ Antecedents to Modern Rwanda: The Nyiginya Kingdom.
- ^ "Rwanda - Cultural institutions | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
- ^ "Colonialism of Central Africa | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
- ^ "Rwanda genocide of 1994 | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 9 October 2023.
- ^ Van Schuylenbergh, Patricia (11 January 2016). "Rwanda, Kingdom of". The Encyclopedia of Empire. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: 1–3. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe047. ISBN 9781118455074.
- ^ "Rwanda's new king named – a father of two living on an estate near Manchester". the Guardian. 12 January 2017.
- ^ a b Uvin 1999, p. 255.
- ^ a b c d e Tuttle 2010.
- ^ a b Dorsey 1994, p. 6.
- ^ O. 1963, p. 299.
- ^ Des Forges 2011, p. 6.
- ^ Byanafashe & Rutayisire 2016, pp. 74–75, 103.
- ^ a b Vansina 2004, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Byanafashe & Rutayisire 2016, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Vansina 2004, pp. 44–45.
- ^ "Kingdom of Rwanda | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
- ^ "Bakiga People and their Culture". ugandatourismcenter.com. Archived from the original on 26 March 2018. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ Johan Pottier (2002). Re-imagining Rwanda (PDF). Cambridge University Press. p. 13.
- ^ "Neighbours who kill 'without hatred': Hutus and Tutsis deny the depth". The Independent. 11 April 1994. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ Cooper & Fontanellaz 2015, Section: Military Build-up.
- ^ Strizek 2006, pp. 44–45, 98.
- ^ Magnarella, Paul J. (January 2000). "Comprehending Genocide: The Case of Rwanda". Global Bioethics. 13 (1–2): 23–43. doi:10.1080/11287462.2000.10800754. ISSN 1128-7462. S2CID 141600246.
- ^ "Kingdom of Rwanda | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
- ^ De Haas, Michael (November 2019). "MOVING BEYOND COLONIAL CONTROL? ECONOMIC FORCES AND SHIFTING MIGRATION FROM RUANDA-URUNDI TO BUGANDA, 1920–60". Journal of African History. 60 (3): 379–406. doi:10.1017/S0021853719001038. S2CID 213049347. ProQuest 2321652697. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
- ^ Des Forges 2011, p. 15.
- ^ Vansina 2004, p. 177.
- ^ Des Forges 2011, pp. 15–18.
- ^ Strizek 2006, p. 73.
- ^ Rusagara 2009, p. 71.
- ^ Des Forges 2011, pp. 15–16.
- ^ a b Cantrell 2022, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Des Forges 2011, pp. 17–23.
- ^ Carney, J.J. (2013). Rwanda Before the Genocide: Catholic Politics and Ethnic Discourse in the Late Colonial Era. Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 9780199982288.
- ^ Dusabe 2020, p. 2.
- ^ Lobingier 1932, p. 192.
- ^ Pottier 2002, p. 13.
- ^ Dorsey 1994, p. 8.
- ^ Gérard Prunier (1995). The Rwanda Crisis, 1959-1994. C. Hurst & Co. p. 24. ISBN 9781850652434.
- ^ Leon Delmas (1950). Généalogies de la noblesse (les Batutsi) du Ruanda (in French). Vicariat Apostolique du Ruanda Kabgayi. p. 54.
le nom dynastique de leur fils, comme: Nyira-Yuhi, la mère de Yuhi-Musinga, Nyira-Kigeri, la mère de Kigeri-Rwabugiri, etc . . . Les rois du nom de Mutara devaient être des rois pacifiques et sociologues; il leur fallait des conseillers experts pour bien gérer les intérêts du royaume, et le premier conseiller choisi fut la mère du roi, d'où le nom de Nyiramavugo qui signifie : mère du bon conseil, du bon langage.
- ^ Democratic Engineering in Rwanda and Burundi. African Books Collective. 29 December 2018. p. 143. ISBN 978-9970-19-672-2.
- ^ Un abrégé de l'Ethno-Histoire du Rwanda. Editions universitaires du Rwanda. 1972.
- ^ A History of the Kingdom of Nkore in Western Uganda to 1896. p. 229-230.
Works cited
- Byanafashe, Déogratias; Rutayisire, Paul (2016). History of Rwanda: from the beginning to the end of the twentieth century (PDF). Kigali: National Unity and Reconciliation Commission. ISBN 978-9997770967.
- Des Forges, Alison (2011). Defeat Is the Only Bad News: Rwanda under Musinga, 1896–1931. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0299281441.
- Rusagara, Frank K. (2009). Resilience of a Nation. A History of the Military in Rwanda. Kigali: Fountain Publishers. ISBN 978-9970190010.
- Strizek, Helmut (2006). Geschenkte Kolonien: Ruanda und Burundi unter deutscher Herrschaft; mit einem Essay über die Entwicklung bis zur Gegenwart [Gifted colonies: Rwanda and Burundi under German rule; with an essay on the development up to the present] (in German). Berlin: Ch. Links. ISBN 978-3-86153-390-0.
- Vansina, Jan (2004). Antecedents to Modern Rwanda: The Nyiginya Kingdom. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0852559970.
- Lobingier, Charles Sumner (December 1932). "Rise and Fall of Feudal Law" (PDF). Cornell Law Review. 18 (1). Ithaca, New York: Cornell Law School: 192–231. ISSN 0010-8847. OCLC 8254996940. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 April 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
- Pottier, Johan (2002). Re-imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81366-2.
- Tuttle, Kate (2010). "Rwanda". In Gates Jr., Henry Louis; Appiah, Kwame Anthony (eds.). Encyclopedia of Africa. Oxford, Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195337709.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9.
- Dusabe, Francis (April 2020). "Report on Citizenship Law: Rwanda" (PDF). cadmus.eui.eu. Badia Fiesolana: European University Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 June 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- Dorsey, Learthen (1994). Historical Dictionary of Rwanda (1st ed.). Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-2820-9.
- Uvin, Peter (April 1999). "Ethnicity and Power in Burundi and Rwanda: Different Paths to Mass Violence". Comparative Politics. 31 (3). New York, New York: City University of New York: 253–271. doi:10.2307/422339. ISSN 0010-4159. JSTOR 422339. OCLC 205554027. PMID 20120547. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
- O., R. (1963). "Rwanda Re-Examined". The Journal of African History. 4 (2). Cambridge, Cambridgeshire: Cambridge University Press: 298–300. ISSN 0021-8537. JSTOR 179545. OCLC 5548892882. Retrieved 11 December 2021.