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Syed Ahmad Barelvi

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(Redirected from Sayyid Ahmad Barelvi)
Not to be confused with Ahmad Raza Khan Barelvi and Syed Ahmad Khan.
For other uses, see Syed Ahmed (disambiguation).

Sayyid Ahmad bin Muhammad Irfan Al-Hasani Al-Barelvi
Grave of Syed Ahmad in 2014
Personal
Born(1786-11-29)29 November 1786
Rae Bareli, Kingdom of Oudh
Died6 May 1831(1831-05-06) (aged 44)
Balakot, Sikh Empire
ReligionSunni Islam
JurisprudenceHanafi
Independent[1]
Main interest(s)Islamic fundamentalism, Anti-Shi'ism, Hadith, Jihad
Known forIslamic revivalism
Other namesShaheed-e-Balakot, Imam-ul-Mujahidin,
Senior posting
Influenced by
Influenced

Syed Ahmad Barelvi, also known as Sayyid Ahmad Shahid,[2] (1786–1831)[3][4] was an Islamic revivalist, scholar, and military commander from Indian subcontinent (Raebareli), a part of the historical United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (now called Uttar Pradesh). He launched the Indian jihad movement that waged a decades-long Islamic revolt against colonial rule across various provinces of British India.[5][2] Sayyid Ahmad is revered as a major scholarly authority in the Ahl-i Hadith and Deobandi movements.[6] The epithet 'Barelvi' is derived from Raebareli, his place of origin.

His ancestors were descendants of Muhammad who migrated to India in the early 13th century.[7] Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi wrote Seerat-i-Sayyid Ahmad Shaheed, the first historical biography of Syed Ahmad Barelvi.[8]

Early life and education

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Syed Ahmad Barelvi was born on 29 November 1786 in Raebareli, into a Syed family.[9] His primary education was initiated in 1791, when he was aged four.[10] As he turned 10, his father died and the familial responsibilities fell onto his shoulders, and this made him travel to Lucknow, at the age of 18 in search of some work. He however inclined to stay in the tutelage of Shah Abdul Aziz, an Islamic scholar, who was the son of revivalist reformer Shah Waliullah, in Delhi.[11]

Ahmad travelled to Delhi, and was subsequently allotted accommodation in the Akbarabadi Mosque.[12] He stayed in the tutelage of Abdul Aziz for a few years, and returned to his hometown in the early 1808, or in the late 1807.[13]

Later career and military service

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After his tutelage under Shah Abdul Aziz from 1806 to 1811, Syed Ahmad began his career as a Pindari horse soldier in the militia of Amir Khan Pindari, a military expeditionary at the age of 25.[14][15] This was an era where large numbers of North Indian Muslim horsemen from the Uttar Pradesh region were unemployed and saw a destruction of their livelihood due to the fall of Muslim rule, and a large number of those disaffected turned into plunderers known as the Pindari freebooters who fought merely for loot and plunder to establish power.[16][17][18][19]

In 1817, after the Third Anglo-Maratha War, Amir Khan allied with the East India Company, the Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief, the Marquess of Hastings, resolved to defeat the Pindaris whom they deemed a menace. The Treaty of Gwalior severed the link between them and Scindia. Moreover, the treaty required the latter to join forces with the East India Company to eliminate the Pindaris and Pathans. Bowing to the inevitable, Amir Khan came to terms with the English, agreeing to disband his men in return for a large stipend and recognition as a hereditary Nawab, who quietly settled down to consolidate his little state. Being against this treaty, Syed Ahmed left the military service, because for him the British were kuffar (Christian infidels).[20]

Now unemployed, Syed Ahmad returned to Delhi after his service and decided to emulate Amir Khan. Journalist Tariw Hasan writes that W.W. Hunter described Syed Ahmad "as a robber who took to religion to plunder for wealth".[21] During this period in his life, Syed Ahmad became more mature and harmonized his military experiences with a zealous commitment to establish Sharia (Islamic law).[22] Two family members of the theologian Shah Waliullah—Shah Ismail Dehlavi (1771–1831) and Maulvi Abdul Hai (died 1828)—became disciples of Syed Ahmad, an event that raised his mystic confidence and stature.[23] This endorsement only added to his reputation, and his popularity grew with adherents flocking to him by the thousands.[24]

Reform movement

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Syed Ahmad was the first major Islamic theologian on the subcontinent to realize the necessity of an Islamic movement that was simultaneously scholarly, military, and political to repel the British. He eagerly addressed the Muslim masses directly, not traditional leaders, in his call for a popular jihad against a Sikh rule in Punjab. His evangelism—based on networks of preachers, collectors, and judges—also addressed the common people and not the rulers' courts.[25]

At the core of the reform movement initiated by Syed Ahmad was the advocacy of a puritanical interpretation of Tawhid (monotheism), similar to the Muwahhidun movement in Arabia. The movement fought against local practices and customs related to saint veneration and grave visits, which they regarded as bid'ah (religious innovations) and shirk (polytheism) that corrupted Islam. Syed Ahmad's reformist teachings were set down in two prominent treatises: Sirat'ul Mustaqim (The Straight Path) and Taqwiyatul-Iman (Strengthening of the Faith), compiled by his acolyte Shah Muhammad Ismail. The two works stressed the centrality of Tawhid (monotheism), advocated that acts of worship—such as dua and sacrifices—belonged solely to God, and denounced all those practices and beliefs that were held in any way to compromise Tawhid. The followers of Syed Ahmad viewed three sources of threat to their beliefs: traditional Sufism, Shiism, and popular custom.[26]

Syed Ahmad urged Muslims to follow the path laid down by Muhammad (Tariqa -i Muhammadiyah), abandon all superstitious activities in various Sufi orders, and called for a total reformation of Tasawwuf. Syed Ahmad reserved his sharpest condemnations for the moral degradation of Muslims and blamed the corrupt Sufis as the primary cause of Muslim decline. He called upon Muslims to strictly abide by the tenets of the Shariah (Islamic law) by following the Qur'an and the Sunnah. The most prominent feature of Syed Ahmad's teachings was his warning to avoid shirk (polytheism), bid'ah (religious innovations); and re-assertion of Tawhid.[27] Once he said to a group of his disciples:

Brethren! the purpose of performing the bay'ah is that you should give up everything you do which is of the nature of polytheism or heresy, your making of ta'ziyahs, setting up banners, worshipping the tombs of Pirs and martyrs, making offerings to them and taking vows in their names. All this you should give up, and do not believe that your good and ill come from anyone except God; do not recognize anyone but Him as having the power to grant the fulfillment of your wishes. If you continue [in this way of polytheism and heresy], merely offering bay'ah will bring no benefit.[28]

Syed Ahmad visited numerous towns of the North Indian plains between 1818 and 1821. He incited hundreds of missionaries to preach against Shia beliefs and practices. Syed Ahmad repeatedly destroyed tazias, an act that resulted in subsequent riots and chaos.[29] Syed Ahmad called upon the Muslim masses to abandon practices related to Shia influence, such as the tazias which were replicas of the tombs of the martyrs of Karbala taken in procession during the mourning ceremony of Muharram. Shah Muhammad Ismail declared the act of breaking tazias as an obligation upon all believers and asserted that it was as virtuous as breaking idols. Syed Ahmad is reported to have organized the burning of thousands of tazias.[30]

In 1821, Syed Ahmad left for Hajj along with a group of devotees. He returned from Hajj in 1823,[25] and once again visited different parts of India. For Syed Ahmad and the followers of the Faraizi movement, India was "Dar al-Harb" (a land without a peace treaty with Muslims) and therefore jihad was obligatory for all Muslims. In his book Sirat-e-Mustaqeem, Shah Ismail Dehlvi wrote:

A large part of present-day India has become “Dar-ul-Harab”. Compare the situation with the heavenly blessings of India two and three hundred years ago.[31]

Syed Ahmad's opponents labeled him a Wahhabi (a follower of the puritan Sunni reform movement in Arabia), but he did not consider himself as such.[32]

Jihad movement and Islamic State

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See also: Ahl-i Hadith § Indian Jihad Movement

Upon return, Syed Ahmad regarded his immediate enemy to be the Sikh Empire ruled by Ranjit Singh, which was expanding, close to Afghanistan. Syed Ahmad intended to establish a strong Islamic state on the North-West Frontier region in the Peshawar valley, as a strategic base for the future invasion of India.[25] When the military action began, some Muslim Nawabs (like his former employer Amir Khan) provided funds but did not join Syed Ahmad for jihad. Around 8,000 mujahideen (holy warriors) accompanied him, mostly consisting of clergymen and poor people. The rulers of Tonk, Gwalior, and Rampur supported Syed Ahmad with British consent because they were dependent on British forces and knew the British would not stop them from aiding an enemy of a nation they would soon be at war with.[33]

Arriving in Peshawar valley in late 1826, Syed Ahmad and his followers made their base in towns of Hund and Zaida in Swabi District.[34] Syed Ahmad called upon the local Pashtun and Hazarewal tribes to wage jihad, and demanded that they renounce their tribal customs and adopt the Sharia. The traditional khans were replaced by Traditional ulama (Islamic scholars) and a system of Islamic taxes was established to finance the jihad. Soon after this evangelist campaign and the establishment of the Sharia system, jihad was declared.[35][25] He sent an ultimatum to Ranjit Singh, demanding:

[...] either become a Muslim, pay Jizyah or fight and remember that in case of war, Yaghistan supports the Indians.[36]

The mujahideen were educated with both theological doctrines and physical training sessions. Syed Ahmad organized wrestling, archery training, and shooting competitions. The mujahideen also repeated several Islamic anthems. One such popular anthem has survived, known as "Risala Jihad".[37] On 21 December 1826, Syed Ahmad and his 1,500 followers clashed with 4,000 Sikh troops in the battle of Akora Khattak and obtained a significant victory.[38] On 11 January 1827, allegiance was sworn on his hand and he was declared Caliph and Imam.[39] Syed Ahmad's claim to Khilafah was viewed with suspicion in the Frontier region as well as in the clerical circles of North India. When the Jumu'ah (Friday prayer) sermon was read in his name, symbolising his claim to power, the tribal chiefs became wary. According to prominent Pathan Sardars like Khadi Khan, Maulvis were ill-equipped to run the affairs of a state.[31] In response to the criticisms, Syed Ahmad asserted that his aim was not material but to lead a jihad against kuffar. Defending his claim to Caliphate, Syed Ahmad writes:

We thank and praise God, the real master and the true king, who bestowed upon his humble, recluse and helpless servant the title of Caliphate, first through occult gestures and revelations, in which there is no room for doubt, and then by guiding the hearts of the believers towards me. This way God appointed me as the Imam (leader)... the person who sincerely confesses to my position is special in the eyes of God, and the one who denies it is, of course sinful. My opponents who deny me of this position will be humiliated and disgraced.[31]

Apart from the rebellious Pashtun chieftains, Syed Ahmad also faced strong opposition from Sufi clerical establishment. Throughout their armed activities during the 1820s and 1830s, mujahideen engaged in ideological and physical conflict with the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidis and various Sufi orders such as Qadiris and Chishtis.[40] In March 1827, mujahideen suffered a serious defeat against the Sikhs during the battle of Shaidu, worsening the position of Syed Ahmad.

After the conquest of Peshawar by the mujahideen, Syed Ahmad announced the abolition of all tribal rituals that he regarded as bid'ah (religious innovations). He abolished various practices such as: the bride being paid a regular price for marriage; the widowed of the deceased Muslims being divided among his heirs; practice of more than four marriages; denial of inheritance to women; clan wars being considered like jihad and its plunder being considered as booty. He also pushed for aggressive and violent policies to enforce Sharia. These included: allowing brides as long as half of the agreed money was given; young girls eligible for marriage should be married immediately; flogging people who didn't pray.[31]

In addition to his Islamic social agenda, Syed Ahmad also attempted to collect ushr (an Islamic tithe), amounting to 10% of crop yields. This policy was faced with fierce opposition from an alliance of local Pathan tribesmen, who briefly managed to occupy Peshawar. The alliance was defeated and the Islamic reformers finally re-captured Peshawar. Over several months during 1830, Sayyed Ahmad tried to reconcile between established power hierarchies. But before the end of 1830, another organized uprising occurred, and Syed Ahmad's soldiers in Peshawar and surrounding villages were murdered and the movement was forced to retreat to the hills. There, in the town of Balakot in 1831, Syed Ahmad was killed and beheaded by the Sikh Army.[34]

Battle of Balakot

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Position of the Sikh forces at the foot of the Metikot hill
Main article: Battle of Balakot

Syed Ahmad's political and religious power created strong opposition against him in the Frontier region and the locals started to revolt.[25] The decisive moments for Syed Ahmad came in 1830. After being bribed by Ranjit Singh,[41] many Pukhtun leaders rose against him and around two hundred mujahideen were killed in the Peshawar valley, which compelled him to migrate and try his luck in Kashmir, his long-cherished dream.[42] Regarding the expulsion of Syed Ahmad from Peshawar by Sultan Muhammad, Joseph Cunningham (1812-1851) writes:

The petty Muhammadan chiefs generally, with whom self-interest overcame influence and faith, were averse to the domination of the Indian adventurer, and the imprudence of Saiyid Ahmad gave umbrage to his Usufzai adherents. He had levied from the peasants a tithe of their goods, and this measure caused little or no dissatisfaction, for it agreed with their notion of the rights of a religious teacher; but his decree that all the young women of marriageable age should be at once wedded interfered with the profits of Afghan parents, proverbially avaricious, and who usually disposed of their daughters to the wealthiest bridegrooms. But when Saiyid Ahmad was accused, perhaps unjustly, of assigning the maidens one by one to his needy Indian followers, his motives were impugned, and the discontent was loud. Early in November 1830, he was constrained to relinquish Peshawar to Sultan Muhammad at a fixed tribute, and he proceeded to the left bank of the Indus to give battle to the Sikhs. The Saiyid depended chiefly on the few 'Ghazis' who had followed his fortunes throughout, and on the insurrectionary spirit of the Muzalfarabad and other chiefs, for his Usufzai adherents had greatly decreased. The hill 'khans' were soon brought under subjection by the efforts of Sher Singh and the governor of Kashmir; yet Ahmad continued active, and, in a desultory warfare amid rugged mountains, success for a time attended him; but, during a cessation of the frequent conflicts, he was surprised, early in May 1831, at a place called Balakot, and fallen upon and slain. The Usufzais at once expelled his deputies, the 'Ghazis' dispersed in disguise, and the family of the Saiyid hastened to Hindustan to find an honourable asylum with their friend the Nawab of Tonk.[43]

On 6 May 1831, on the day of Jumu'ah 23 Zulqa'da 1246 AH, Syed Ahmad Barelvi's mujahideen forces prepared for the final battle at Balakot Maidan in the mountainous valley of Mansehra district. An ill-equipped army of mujahideen faced a significantly larger number of soldiers led by the Sikh commander Sher Singh. On that day, Syed Ahmed, Shah Ismail, and prominent leaders of the Islamic movement fell fighting in the battlefield. Sikh victory at Balakot arose jubilation in Lahore. The defeat at Balakot was a devastating blow to the movement.[44]

Legacy

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Syed Ahmad is widely regarded as the founder of the subcontinental Ahl-i Hadith movement and his teachings are highly influential amongst its members.[45] Another major group that carries his legacy is the Deobandi school of thought.[46] Scholar Edward Mortimer believes Syed Ahmad anticipated modern Islamists in waging jihad and attempting to create an Islamic state with strict enforcement of Sharia.[47] Scholar Olivier Roy considers Syed Ahmad to be the first modern Islamic leader to lead a movement that was "religious, military and political" and to address the common people and rulers with a call for jihad.[25] The mujahideen were unprecedented for their tactics of popular mobilization aimed at swiftly achieving the objectives of social reformation through military means, combined with fierce hostility towards non-Muslim powers such as the British Empire and the Sikhs. Syed Ahmad was committed to expand his emirate to the whole of South Asia and authored tracts calling upon Indian Muslims to join the cause of jihad.[48]

Syed Ahmad attained the exemplar status of shahid (martyr), one of the highest honours in Islam, and would inspire generations of Militant Islamist ideologues and Jihadi activists throughout the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries. His calls to action—such as a return to the pristine Islam of the Salaf, and the purifying of Islamic culture from Western and Shi'i influences through armed jihad—became major hallmarks of South Asian and Central Asian militant Islamist movements like the Taliban. Al-Qaeda's ideology was greatly inspired by Syed Ahmad's jihad movement, which was waged from Eastern Afghanistan and Khyber Pakhtunkwa. Influenced by Syed Ahmad, contemporary Jihadists compare American hegemony to the 19th century British rule to justify their campaigns.[49]

The jihad movement of Syed Ahmad made a great impact on Islamic scholarly tradition of South Asia and would deeply divide many clerics and theologians. Some intellectuals and scholars criticised the militant aspects of his reform programme, especially its sectarian violence against other self-professed Muslims whom the mujahideen declared as heretics or apostates. Scholars like Wahiduddin Khan asserted that Syed Ahmad's jihad was illegitimate, since it was self-declared and not waged by a Muslim ruler. Meanwhile, South Asian Islamists eagerly embraced Syed Ahmad's teachings and popularised his writings that sought the militant restoration of an Islamic state. All major organisations that wage militant jihad in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Kashmir use the rhetoric and legacy of Syed Ahmad's mujahideen to shore up support from the conservative base. Hafiz Saeed's Lashkar-e-Taiba and Masood Azhar's Jaish-e-Muhammad are two major militant Islamist organisations inspired by Syed Ahmad that wage jihad against India in Kashmir. Other organisations include Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, a Jihadist group in Pakistan.[50]

References

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  1. ^ Hedayetullah, Muhammad (1968). Sayyid Ahmad: a Study of the Religious Reform Movement of Sayyid Ahmad of Ra'e Bareli. Montreal, Canada: Mcgill University. pp. 113, 115, 158. second feature of 'tarÎqah~i Muhammadiyah' is its insistence on t he right of ijtihad (independent reasoning ) and rejection of taqlid.. Sayyid Ahmad condemned the muqallidin and urged the Muslims to turn to the authority of the Qur'an and the Sunnah for guidance... he rejected all authority of the four orthodox schools of Muslim jurisprudence , which meant , positively, that he declared himself a ghayr muqallid(non-conformist).
  2. ^ a b Guhathakurta, van Schendel, Meghna, Willem (2013). "Wage Holy War-Or Leave!". The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics. London, United Kingdom: Duke University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8223-5304-1. Sayyid Ahmad Shahid{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ Adamec 2009, p. 54.
  4. ^ Jalal 2009, pp. 307–308.
  5. ^ Ayesha Jalal (30 June 2009). Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia. Harvard University Press. p. 71. ISBN 9780674039070.
  6. ^ Ahmad, M. (1975). Saiyid Ahmad barevali: His Life and Mission (No. 93). Lucknow: Academy of Islamic Research and Publications. Page 27.
  7. ^ Altaf Qadir 2014, p. 28.
  8. ^ Zubair Zafar, Khan (2010). A critical study of Moulana Abdul Hasan Ali nadwis islamic thought (Thesis). India: Department of Islamic Studies, Aligarh Muslim University. p. 146. hdl:10603/60854.
  9. ^ Nishat 2015, p. 25.
  10. ^ Nishat 2015, p. 26.
  11. ^ Nishat 2015, p. 28.
  12. ^ Nishat 2015, p. 29.
  13. ^ Nishat 2015, p. 31.
  14. ^ Altaf Qadir 2014, p. 29.
  15. ^ Tariq Hasan (2015). Colonialism and the Call to Jihad in British India. SAGE Publications. ISBN 9789351505402.
  16. ^ Defence Journal:Volumes 4-5. 2001. p. 66.
  17. ^ Sumit Walia (2021). Unbattled Fears: Reckoning the National Security. Lancer Publishers. p. 125. ISBN 9788170623311.
  18. ^ Calcutta Review 1956. University of Calcutta. 1956. p. 38.
  19. ^ Hardy (1972). The Muslims of British India. CUP Archive. p. 35. ISBN 9780521084888.
  20. ^ Bashir, Aamir (2013). Shari'at and Tariqat: A Study of the Deobandi Understanding and Practice of Tasawwuf. Dar al-Sa'adah Publication.
  21. ^ Tariq Hasan (2006). The Aligarh Movement and the Making of the Indian Muslim Mind, 1857-2002. Rupa & Company. p. XIV. ISBN 9788129108470.
  22. ^ Metcalf, Barbara Daly (2002). Islamic revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900 (3rd impression. ed.). New Delhi: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0195660498.
  23. ^ Altaf Qadir 2014, p. xiv.
  24. ^ Abbott, Freeland (1962). "The Jihad of Sayyid Ahmad". The Muslim World. 52 (3): 216–222. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.1962.tb02616.x.
  25. ^ a b c d e f Roy, Olivier (1985). Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–8. ISBN 9780521397001. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
  26. ^ B. Metcalf, "Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900", pp. 56 - 57, Princeton University Press (1982).
  27. ^ Hedayetullah, Muhammad (1968). Sayyid Ahmad: a Study of the Religious Reform Movement of Sayyid Ahmad of Rae Bareli. Montreal, Canada: Mcgill University. pp. 113, 115, 134.
  28. ^ Hedayetullah, Muhammad (1968). Sayyid Ahmad: a Study of the Religious Reform Movement of Sayyid Ahmad of Rae Bareli. Montreal, Canada: Mcgill University. p. 134.
  29. ^ Andreas Rieck, "The Shia's of Pakistan", p. 16, Oxford University Press (2016).
  30. ^ B. Metcalf, "Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900", p. 58, Princeton University Press (1982). "The second group of abuses Syed Ahmad held were those that originated from Shi’i influence. He particularly urged Muslims to give up the keeping of ta’ziyahs. [...] Syed Ahmad himself is said, no doubt with considerable exaggeration, to have torn down thousands of imambaras, the building that house the taziyahs".
  31. ^ a b c d Dr. Mubarak Ali, "Almiyah-e-Tarikh", Chapter 11, pp.107-121, Fiction House, Lahore (2012).
  32. ^ Campo, Juan Eduardo (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4381-2696-8.
  33. ^ Altaf Qadir 2014, p. 57.
  34. ^ a b Wahhabi movement in India. Qeyamuddin Ahmad, (1994, p.50). open library
  35. ^ Jūrj al-Maqdisī, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb · (1965). Arabic and Islamic Studies in Honor of Hamilton A. R. Gibb. Brill Archive. p. 96.
  36. ^ Altaf Qadir 2014, p. 63.
  37. ^ Charles Allen, "God's Terrorists: The Wahhabi Cult and the Hidden Roots of Modern Jihad", p. 86, Abacus (2006).
  38. ^ Altaf Qadir 2014, p. 62.
  39. ^ Altaf Qadir 2014, p. 66.
  40. ^ Ziad, Waleed (2021). "6: Peshawar in Turmoil". Hidden Caliphate: Sufi Saints beyond the Oxus and Indus. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Hardvard University Press. pp. 174–175. ISBN 9780674269378.
  41. ^ Riaz, Ismat (2013). Understanding History. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press. p. 77.
  42. ^ Altaf Qadir 2014.
  43. ^ Cunningham, Joseph Davey (2011). A History of the Sikhs: From the Origin of the Nation to the Battles of the Sutlej. Cambridge Library Collection - South Asian History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 172. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511873652. ISBN 978-1-108-06456-9.
  44. ^ Naqvi, A.Q. (2001). The Salafis (History of the Ahle Hadees Movement in India). New Delhi: Al-Kitab International. pp. 132–139, 148.
  45. ^ Roy, Olivier (1994). "Chapter 7: The Geostrategy of Islamism: States and Networks". The Failure of Political Islam. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 124. ISBN 0-674-29140-9. ..Sayyid Barelvi, founder of the Ahl-i Hadith movement.
  46. ^ B. Metcalf, "Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900", p. 50-60, Princeton University Press (1982).
  47. ^ Mortimer, Edward, Faith and Power, (1982), p.68-70
  48. ^ Altaf Qadir 2014, p. 184–186.
  49. ^ Marquardt, Heffelfinger, Erich, Christopher (2008). Terrorism & Political Islam: Origins, Ideologies, and Methods; a Counter Terrorism Textbook; 2nd Edition. Combating Terrorism Center, Department of Social Sciences. pp. 37–38, 42, 150–151, 153. ASIN B004LJQ8O8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Altaf Qadir 2014, p. 184–191.

Bibliography

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