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Action tendency

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Action tendency is a psychological term in behavioural science, which refers to an individual's urge to carry out a particular behaviour, particularly as a component of emotion. It represents a person’s initial compulsion for goal-directed behaviour in response to environmental stimuli, directly addressing the emotions experienced.[1]

Importantly, action tendencies do not guarantee that a behaviour will occur. Instead, they serve as effective predictors of how emotions guide actions, showcasing patterns of readiness to engage or avoid situations [2] depending on the emotional context.[1] In behavioural science, an individual's emotions direct their response to current circumstances or relationships; thus, the action tendency, as a constituent factor of the individual's overall emotional responsivity, is a temporary and immediate impulse.[3][4]

Role of emotions

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There are several distinct emotions - such as joy, sadness, fear, disgust, and anger – that form actions tendencies including approach, inaction, withdrawal, and attack.[5] Emotional valence – whether the experienced emotion is positive or negative – arises from the measure of congruency between an individuals’ goals and their environment. Environments that support goal attainment typically elicit positive emotions and approach behaviours. Conversely, environments that limit resources necessary for goal achievement, activate negative emotions and avoidance behaviours.[6]

However, action tendencies are not fixed.[7] They are immediate suggestions for a response in a particular set of circumstances, informed by an individual's set of preferences at the current point in time, which are supplied elsewhere within the emotion. Action tendency, therefore, changes as an individual moves between emotional states, and is modified by the individual's present cognitive and physiological abilities.[8][2] The same emotion can lead to different action tendencies explaining why emotional responses do not always translate into consistent behaviours.[1]

Formation

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Action tendencies develop from the interaction between emotional experience, physiological responses, and cognitive processes

Biological and cognitive foundations

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Biologically, action urges are part of evolved survival mechanisms, preparing the body to rapidly adapt and respond to environmental challenges.[9][6] As the motivational component of emotional decision making, action tendencies are responsible for the preparation and direction of motor responses. Under the emotional framework, motivation can be thought of as the state of readiness to engage in a certain action with the goal of achieving a desired result.[10] The action tendency is distinct from cognitive, physiological, and expressive components, which likewise determine an individual's behaviour.[11][12][13]

  • Survival mechanisms: A key example is the Fight-or-Flight response induced by fear. This activates the sympathetic nervous system, realising hormones like adrenaline and cortisol, to prepare the body to either attack (fight) or escape (flight) the perceived threat. These physiological changes create a readiness to act shaped by an internal risk assessment to select the most effective behavioural strategy for the situation.[14]
  • Regulatory drives: The hypothalamus plays a central role in regulating motivational drives that underlie action tendencies. Its interaction with the automatic nervous system and endocrine system helps maintain homeostasis and regulate essential survival-based motivations.[15] These drives are essential in adjusting goal priorities that are more likely to support survival in response to the changing environmental conditions.[6]
  • Reward system: The brain’s reward system, particularly the mesolimbic pathway, reinforces action tendencies. When a behaviour leads to a desirable outcome, dopamine is released, reinforcing the relationship between the stimulus and associated behaviour. Repeated pairings form learned associations, increasing the probability that specific emotional contexts trigger similar behavioural impulses. However, reinforcement can also promote counterproductive behavioural tendencies, such as addiction, where excessive dopamine release creates ‘super-learning’ cues.[15] An unreactive reward system may motivate individuals to seek greater stimulation through antisocial behaviours, reinforcing reward-seeking action tendencies that relieve unpleasant states.[16]

Learning action tendencies

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Action tendencies can be learnt through conditioning. Repeated exposure to similar emotional environments and appraisals teaches individuals which behaviours are most effective or rewarding.[16] This learning creates expectations about future events, resulting in the experience of ‘anticipated emotions’ which motivate behaviour before the emotion is felt.[1] Baumgartner, Pieters and Bagozzi (2008) argued that, through common patterns of experience, individuals display preferences to select actions that are predicted to generate positive emotions and avoid negative ones. Action tendencies, therefore, may not solely arise from immediate emotional experiences but also caused by the expectation about an emotional outcome.[1][5]

Several theories and experiments support the notion that action tendencies can be primed to produce a desired result before the onset of emotion. For example, a 2010 experiment trained addicts to either approach or avoid alcohol, finding that the subjects' action tendency towards alcohol was positively affected in accordance with the training condition.[17]

Appraisal theory and action tendencies

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Appraisal theory argues that emotions stem from an individual’s subjective evaluation of events in relation to personal goals. Emotional evaluations determine how learned appraisals manifest into specific action tendencies. As emotions become conceptualised through appraisal, behavioural urges reflect a person’s interpretation of the environment, distinguishing whether a particular behavioural response is compatible with the situation.[5] Situations appraised as motive-consistent – those that align with personal goals - elicit positive emotions, creating impulses to seek more of the stimuli. Motive inconsistent situations elicit negative emotions, where impulses experienced are aimed to reduce the stimuli.[5]

However, the relationship between emotional valence and action tendency is not always congruent. Appraised intensity and emotional salience also influence the activation of actions.[18] For example, although fear is perceived to have a negative valance, it can evoke approach (fight) or withdrawal (flight) tendencies, depending on the perceived threat intensity.[9] Lower to moderate intensity fear leads to attack tendencies, whereas high intensity fear results in flee tendencies.[6]

Approach and withdrawal tendencies

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Charles Darwin (1872), in “The Expressions of the Emotion in Man and Animals”, proposed action tendencies as generally falling under two main categories: approach and withdrawal.[19][6]

  • Approach tendency: Guide behaviour towards rewarding stimuli. Commonly associated with positive emotions and motive-consistent appraisals. Approach-related emotions include joy, excitement, and sometimes anger.[20]
  • Withdrawal tendency: Guide behaviour away from potential harm and reject undesirable stimuli. Commonly associated with negative emotions and motive-inconsistent appraisals. Withdrawal-related emotions include fear, disgust, and sadness.[20]

Two cognitive systems maintain action tendency activation

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Source:[6]

Neuroimaging studies show the left frontal cortex links to approach tendencies (BAS), while the right frontal cortex links to withdrawal tendencies (BIS).[21]

Cognitive and social regulation

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The activation, suppression, and regulation of action tendencies are influenced by cognitive, social, and contextual factors. One primary regulatory mechanism is cognitive reappraisal – the ability to reinterpret emotionally-inducing events to align with personal goals.[22] This mechanism allows individuals to adjust emotional impulses prior to the full onset of a reaction.[23] Studies show it effectively reduces negative emotions and promote positive emotions to generate more socially appropriate tendencies.[24][23]

Social environments and cultural norms also shape cognitive responses to emotional events.[25]Social Identity Theory argues individuals internalise the beliefs and behaviours of their in-groups – groups they identify with – creating strong desires to perform actions that reinforce conformity to group norms.[18] For instance, while anger may promote aggressive, confrontational urges, societal norms and law-compliance often inhibit these behaviours.[1] This is often mediated by fear of punishment or reputational damage that override antisocial tendencies.[16]

Perceived action tendency may also play a role in social conditioning and self-esteem which is observable at an early developmental stage. In 1979, experimental data demonstrated that children who self-reported more frequent assertive and aggressive tendencies experienced lower self-image and negative social stigma. These findings suggest that the self-observation of behavioural tendencies plays a significant role in the construction of identity and the regulation of behaviour.[26]

However, highly irrational emotions present a harder regulatory challenge, evident in psychological disorders like depression, anxiety and panic, where involuntary emotions govern action tendencies.[5] This can lead individuals to act on irrational and antisocial urges driven by unregulated emotional states.[16]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f Palmer, David (2017). "The action tendency for learning: Characteristics and antecedents in regular lessons". International Journal of Educational Research. 82: 99–109. doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2017.01.010.
  2. ^ a b Vanberg, Viktor J. (October 2008). "On the Economics of Moral Preferences". The American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 67 (4) (published 2008-10-16): 605–628. doi:10.1111/j.1536-7150.2008.00589.x. ISSN 0002-9246.
  3. ^ Weiner, Bernard (1974). Cognitive Views of Human Motivation. Burlington: Elsevier Science. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-12-741950-3.
  4. ^ Frijda, Nico H. (1987). "Emotion, cognitive structure, and action tendency". Cognition & Emotion. 1 (2): 115–143. doi:10.1080/02699938708408043. ISSN 0269-9931.
  5. ^ a b c d e Roseman, Ira; Smith, Craig A (2001). "Appraisal theory: Overview, assumptions, varieties, controversies". ResearchGate. Archived from the original on 2022-02-25. Retrieved 2025-04-27.
  6. ^ a b c d e f Shen, Lijiang; Bigsby, Elisabeth (March 2010). "Behavioral Activation/Inhibition Systems and Emotions: A Test of Valence vs. Action Tendency Hypotheses". Communication Monographs. 77 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1080/03637750903514268. ISSN 0363-7751.
  7. ^ Lowe, Robert; Ziemke, Tom (2011). "The Feeling of Action Tendencies: On the Emotional Regulation of Goal-Directed Behavior". Frontiers in Psychology. 2. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00346. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 3246364. PMID 22207854.
  8. ^ Posner, Eric A. (2001). "Law and the Emotions". Georgetown Law Journal. 89. University of Chicago: 1977–2012. doi:10.2307/1600478. ISSN 0041-9494. JSTOR 1600478.
  9. ^ a b Frijda, Nico H. (July 2010). "Impulsive action and motivation". Biological Psychology. 84 (3): 570–579. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.01.005. PMID 20064583.
  10. ^ Frijda, Nico H. (1987). "Emotion, cognitive structure, and action tendency". Cognition & Emotion. 1 (2): 115–143. doi:10.1080/02699938708408043. ISSN 0269-9931.
  11. ^ Scherer, Klaus R. (December 2005). "What are emotions? And how can they be measured?". Social Science Information. 44 (4): 695–729. doi:10.1177/0539018405058216. ISSN 0539-0184.
  12. ^ Shuman, Vera; Scherer, Klaus R. (2013), "Concepts and Structures of Emotions", International Handbook of Emotions in Education, Routledge, pp. 13–35, doi:10.4324/9780203148211.ch2, ISBN 978-0-203-14821-1, retrieved 2025-04-27
  13. ^ Gartmeier, Martin; Hascher, Tina (2016-01-01), Tettegah, Sharon Y.; McCreery, Michael P. (eds.), "Emotions in Learning with Video Cases", Emotions, Technology, and Learning, Emotions and Technology, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 121–122, ISBN 978-0-12-800649-8, retrieved 2025-04-27
  14. ^ Steimer, Thierry (2002-09-30). "The biology of fear- and anxiety-related behaviors". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 4 (3): 231–249. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2002.4.3/tsteimer. ISSN 1958-5969. PMC 3181681. PMID 22033741.
  15. ^ a b Gray, Peter O; Bjorklund, David (2018). Psychology (8th ed.). Macmillan Education. pp. 152–187.
  16. ^ a b c d Byrd, Amy L.; Loeber, Rolf; Pardini, Dustin A. (June 2014). "Antisocial Behavior, Psychopathic Features and Abnormalities in Reward and Punishment Processing in Youth". Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. 17 (2): 125–156. doi:10.1007/s10567-013-0159-6. ISSN 1096-4037. PMC 5330364. PMID 24357109.
  17. ^ Wiers, Reinout W.; Rinck, Mike; Kordts, Robert; Houben, Katrijn; Strack, Fritz (February 2010). "Retraining automatic action-tendencies to approach alcohol in hazardous drinkers". Addiction. 105 (2): 279–287. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02775.x. hdl:2066/90079. ISSN 0965-2140.
  18. ^ a b Yzerbyt, Vincent; Dumont, Muriel; Wigboldus, Daniel; Gordijn, Ernestine (December 2003). "I feel for us: The impact of categorization and identification on emotions and action tendencies". British Journal of Social Psychology. 42 (4): 533–549. doi:10.1348/014466603322595266. ISSN 0144-6665. PMID 14715116.
  19. ^ Davidson, Richard J. (2006-01-24). "Darwin and the Neural Bases of Emotion and Affective Style". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1000 (1): 316–336. doi:10.1196/annals.1280.014. ISSN 0077-8923.
  20. ^ a b Harlé, Katia M.; Sanfey, Alan G. (December 2010). "Effects of approach and withdrawal motivation on interactive economic decisions". Cognition & Emotion. 24 (8): 1456–1465. doi:10.1080/02699930903510220. hdl:2066/99925. ISSN 0269-9931.
  21. ^ Solnais, Céline; Andreu-Perez, Javier; Sánchez-Fernández, Juan; Andréu-Abela, Jaime (June 2013). "The contribution of neuroscience to consumer research: A conceptual framework and empirical review". Journal of Economic Psychology. 36: 68–81. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2013.02.011. hdl:10044/1/23278.
  22. ^ Giancola, Marco; Palmiero, Massimiliano; D’Amico, Simonetta (2024-10-02). "Reappraise and be mindful! The key role of cognitive reappraisal and mindfulness in the association between openness to experience and divergent thinking". Journal of Cognitive Psychology. 36 (7): 834–843. doi:10.1080/20445911.2024.2399403. ISSN 2044-5911.
  23. ^ a b Cutuli, Debora (2014-09-19). "Cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression strategies role in the emotion regulation: an overview on their modulatory effects and neural correlates". Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience. 8 175. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2014.00175. ISSN 1662-5137. PMC 4168764. PMID 25285072.
  24. ^ Oh, Sunyoung; Pyo, Jungmin (2023-10-27). "Creative Self-Efficacy, Cognitive Reappraisal, Positive Affect, and Career Satisfaction: A Serial Mediation Model". Behavioral Sciences. 13 (11): 890. doi:10.3390/bs13110890. ISSN 2076-328X. PMC 10669601. PMID 37998637.
  25. ^ Mesquita, B; Walker, R (July 2003). "Cultural differences in emotions: a context for interpreting emotional experiences". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 41 (7): 777–793. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00189-4. PMID 12781245.
  26. ^ Deluty, Robert H. (1979). "Children's Action Tendency Scale: A self-report measure of aggressiveness, assertiveness, and submissiveness in children". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 47 (6): 1061–1071. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.47.6.1061. ISSN 1939-2117. PMID 512161.
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