African-American names

African-American names are an integral part of African-American tradition. While many Black Americans use names that are popular with wider American culture, several specific naming trends have emerged within African-American culture.

History

Enslaved Black people remained legally nameless from the time of their capture until American enslavers purchased them.^[1] Economic historians Lisa D. Cook, John Parman and Trevon Logan have found that distinctive African-American naming practices happened as early as in the Antebellum period (mid-1800s).^[2]^[3] However, those early names are no longer used.^[2]^[3]

It is widely held that before the 1950s and 1960s, most African-American names closely resembled those used within European-American culture.^[4] Even within the European American population, a few very common names were given to babies of that era, with nicknames often used to distinguish among various people with the same name.^[5] It was also quite common for immigrants and cultural minorities to choose baby names or change their names to fit in within the wider American culture. This applied to both given names and surnames.^[5]^[6]

Paustian has argued that black names display the same themes and patterns as those in West Africa.^[7]

With the rise of the 1960s civil rights movement and the wider counterculture of the 1960s, there was a dramatic rise in African-American names of various origins. Jean Twenge believes that the shift toward unique Black American baby names is also the result of a trend in America that values individuality over conformity.^[5]

In 2004, Fryer et al. examined the rapid change in naming practices in the early 1970s, with the rapid adoption of distinctively black names, especially in low-income, racially isolated neighborhoods.^[8] They favor an explanatory model that attributes a change in black perceptions of their identity to the black power movement.

The most common and typical names among enslaved women in America included Bet, Mary, Jane, Hanna, Betty, Sarah, Phillis, Nan, Peg, and Sary. Private names were Abah, Bilah, Comba, Dibb, Juba, Kauchee, Mima, and Sena. Those enslaved in French Louisiana received names differing from English colonies in America: Francois, Jean, Pierre, and Leon for men; and Manon, Delphine, Marie Louise, Celeste, and Eugenie for women. Spanish colonies in America had Spanish names as Francisco, Pedro, and Antonio for enslaved men; and for enslaved women, the names were Maria, Isabella, and Juana.^[9]

Influences and conventions

Lieberson and Mikelson of Harvard University analyzed black names, finding that the recent innovative naming practices follow American linguistic conventions even if they are independent of organizations or institutions.^[10] Given names used by African-American people are often invented or creatively-spelled variants of more traditional names. Some names are created using syllables; for example, the prefixes La- or De- and the suffixes -ique or -isha. Also, punctuation marks such as apostrophes and dashes are sometimes used, though infrequent^[11]

French names

While creoles of color historically had classical French names, many names of French origin entered the picture during the 1950s and 1960s in homage to the relative freedom that many African American expatriates in Paris had experienced during and after the Années folles. Opinions on the origins of the French influence vary, but historically French names such as Monique, Chantal, André, and Antoine became so common within African-American culture that many Americans began to think of them solely as "black names". These names are often seen with spelling variations such as Antwan, Antwaun or Antwon (Antoine) or Shauntelle (Chantal).^{[citation needed]}

Afrocentric and inventive names

The Afrocentrism movement that grew in popularity during the 1970s saw the advent of African names among African Americans, as well as names imagined to be "African-sounding". Names such as Ashanti have African origins.^[4] The Black Power movement inspired many to show pride in their heritage. Harvard University sociologist Stanley Lieberson noted that in 1977, the name "Kizzy" rose dramatically in popularity following the use of the name in the book and television series Roots.^[4]^[12]

By the 1970s and 1980s, it had become common within African-American culture to invent new names. Many of the invented names took elements from popular existing names. Prefixes such as La/Le, Da/De, Ra/Re, or Ja/Je and suffixes such as -ique/iqua, -isha (for girls), -ari and -aun/awn (for boys) are common, as well as inventive spellings for common names. The book Baby Names Now: From Classic to Cool—The Very Last Word on First Names places the origins of "La" names in African-American culture in New Orleans.^[13] The name LaKeisha is typically considered American in origin but has elements drawn from both African and French roots.

Apostrophes are seen more often within African-American names than other American names, such as the names Mo'nique and D'Andre.^[4]^[14]

In his dictionary of black names, Cenoura asserts that in the early 21st century, black names are "unique names that come from combinations of two or more names, names constructed with common prefixes and suffixes...'conjugated' with a formula..."^[15] "Da", "La", and related sounds may originate from the French spoken in Louisiana. Attached to a common name such as Seán and spelled phonetically, one obtains "DaShawn". Diminutive suffixes from French, Spanish, and Scottish, such as "ita", may be combined directly with prefixes or to a name, as is often found in other naming or nicknaming. Conventions followed usually make the person's gender easily identifiable. Following Spanish, masculine names frequently end in "o", e.g., "Carmello", while feminine names end with "a", e.g., "Jeretta". Following Irish and Italian, apostrophes may be used, e.g. "D'Andre" and "Rene'e". Parents' names may be blended, e.g., the son of "Raymond" and "Yvonne" might be named "Rayvon".

Rather uncommonly or unconventionally, some non-African Americans have been given names that are usually perceived or seen as typically carried by their black fellows.^[16] An example of a European American with an explicitly Afrocentric name is Miss Michigan USA 2014 winner and a Miss USA 2015 delegate, Rashontae Wawrzyniak.^[17]

Muslim names

Islam has been an influence on African-American names. Islamic names entered African-American culture with the rise of the Nation of Islam among black Americans with its focus upon black supremacy and separatism. The popular names Aisha,^[4] Aaliyah,^[18] and others are also examples of names derived from Islam.

Several African-American celebrities began adopting Muslim names (frequently following a religious conversion to Islam), including Muhammad Ali, who changed his name in 1964 from Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr. Other celebrities adopting Muslim names include Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (formerly Lew Alcindor) and Amiri Baraka (formerly LeRoi Jones).^[12] Despite the Muslim origin of these names and the place of the Nation of Islam in the Civil Rights Movement, many Muslim names such as Jamal and Malik entered popular usage among black Americans simply because they were fashionable, and many Islamic names are now commonly used by African Americans regardless of religion.^[4]^[12] Also, there have been a few non-black, non-Muslim Americans who bear those names.^[19]

Ethnic African words and names

Some Black Americans gave and still give their children ethnic African names or names derived from African concepts. Some celebrities like Nas, named Olu Dara, have an ethnic Yoruba name, a West African language. Singer Ashanti was named after the Ashanti Empire and the people of Ghana.^[20]

Some Black Americans also changed their birth names to those which they felt matched their African identity, like Ntozake Shange.^[21] Born Paulette Williams, Shange asked South African musicians Ndikho and Nomusa Xaba to give her African names and she was given Ntozake Shange from the Zulu and Xhosa languages. Shange's sister Wanda also changed her name to Ifa Bayeza later in life - Ifa being a Yoruba word and concept. Actor Donald Cohen changed his name to Obba Babatunde - first name Oba meaning king in Yoruba, spelled with two Bs in his name; and Babatunde, a Yoruba name meaning Father has returned, signifying a belief in reincarnation and honoring a deceased father or male ancestor of the parents.

Also, in 1968, at 21, Alice Williams changed her name to Afeni Shakur; Afeni is a Yoruba word for "lover of people".^[22] These names were based on pride in African ancestry, not necessarily individual claims of being from the particular ethnic groups the names were taken from. Black Americans are mixed with several African ethnicities; the naming conventions were out of inspirational or popular or well-known African ethnic groups they could get information about or felt connected to.^{[citation needed]} Also, Sade or Shade also spelled Sharday or Shardae in the west is an African name which has grown in popularity among Black American names. It is a Yoruba name popularized by the singer Sade Adu.

European and Biblical names

Even with the rise of created names, it is still common for African Americans to use biblical or European names. Daniel, Christopher, Michael, David, James, Joseph, and Matthew were among the most common names for African-American boys in 2013.^[4]^[23]^[24]

Workplace discrimination

In recent years, some evidence points to workplace discrimination based on names. A study in the early 2020s concluded that applicants with traditionally black names have 2.1% less chance of getting a call back after an interview. Studies at the University of Chicago and the University of California Berkeley, in which over 83,000 entry-level job applications were submitted, showed that 7% of all jobs in the experiment were against traditionally black names. This research asserts that candidates with black names were less likely to get a callback.^[25]

References

^ "Slave Names". NCpedia. Archived from the original on 2023-11-23. Retrieved 2024-02-11.
^ ^a ^b Cook, Lisa D.; Logan, Trevon D.; Parman, John M. (2014-07-01). "Distinctively black names in the American past" (PDF). Explorations in Economic History. 53: 64–82. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2014.03.001. ISSN 0014-4983. S2CID 153960814. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-06-02. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
^ ^a ^b Cook, Lisa D.; Parman, John; Logan, Trevon (2022). "The antebellum roots of distinctively black names". Historical Methods: A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History. 55 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1080/01615440.2021.1893877. ISSN 0161-5440. S2CID 228807729.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Wattenberg, Laura (May 7, 2013). The Baby Name Wizard, Revised 3rd Edition: A Magical Method for Finding the Perfect Name for Your Baby. Harmony. ISBN 978-0770436476.
^ ^a ^b ^c Moskowitz, Clara (November 30, 2010). "Baby Names Reveal More About Parents Than Ever Before". Live Science. Archived from the original on June 29, 2017. Retrieved February 18, 2014.
^ Roberts, Sam (August 25, 2010). "New Life in U.S. No Longer Means New Name". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 23, 2017. Retrieved February 23, 2017.
^ Paustian PR. The Evolution of Personal Naming Practices among American Blacks' Names. 1978 Jul 19;26(2):177–91.
^ Fryer RG, Levitt SD. "The Causes and Consequences of Distinctively Black Names". Q J Econ. 2004;119(3):767–805.
^ "Slave Names In The Americas". 14 October 2010.
^ Lieberson S, Mikelson K. "Distinctive African American Names: An Experimental, Historical, and Linguistic Analysis of Innovation". Am Sociol Rev. 1995 Dec;60(6):928–46.
^ "African American Baby Names with Meaning, Origin, Numerology". Archived from the original on 2020-10-19. Retrieved 2021-01-30.
^ ^a ^b ^c Zax, David (Aug 25, 2008). "What's up with black names, anyway?". Salon. Archived from the original on October 22, 2017. Retrieved March 2, 2014.
^ Rosenkrantz, Linda; Satran, Paula Redmond (August 16, 2001). Baby Names Now: From Classic to Cool—The Very Last Word on First Names. St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0312267576.
^ "Black Names". Behind the Names. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
^ Cenoura B. Black. Names Matter: The Black Names Book. Bobby Cenoura and Slice of Pain Publishing and Media; 2015. 394 p.
^ Blake, John (May 15, 2019). "What it's like to be a white woman named LaKiesha". CNN. Archived from the original on November 20, 2023. Retrieved November 23, 2023.
^ "Miss Michigan USA crowned". Detroit Free Press. September 27, 2014. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. Retrieved November 23, 2023.
^ entry for "Aaliya" in English Archived 2017-11-08 at the Wayback Machine, at BehindTheName.
^ NPR Staff (May 6, 2015). "6 Words: 'My Name Is Jamaal ... I'm White'". WFDD. Archived from the original on November 20, 2023. Retrieved November 23, 2023.
^ "Popstar Ashanti reveals why her name often causes confusion". The Times of India. 2022-07-17. ISSN 0971-8257. Retrieved 2024-07-09.
^ Als, Hilton (2018-11-17). "Two Sister-Poets Gone Too Soon: Ntozake Shange and My Sister". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 2024-07-09.
^ "How the Shakurs Became One of America's Most Influential Families". The New Republic. ISSN 0028-6583. Retrieved 2024-07-09.
^ Lack, Evonne. "Popular African American Names". Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
^ Conley, Dalton (March 10, 2010). "Raising E and Yo..." Psychology Today. Archived from the original on September 8, 2023. Retrieved February 18, 2014.
^ Mayo, Aleeya. "'Distinctively Black names' still get fewer callbacks for job applications". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 2023-02-20. Retrieved 2022-12-08.