Jump to content

Transgender people in sports

Page extended-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Anti-trans sports law)

Part of a series on
Transgender topics
     
Gender identities
Health care practices
Rights and legal status
Society and culture
Events and awareness
Culture
Theory and concepts
By country
Rights
History
See also
 Category

The participation of transgender people in competitive sports, a traditionally sex-segregated institution,[1] is a controversial issue, particularly the inclusion of transgender women and girls in women's sports.

Opponents argue that transgender women have an unfair advantage over, and may endanger, cisgender women in competitive sports due to sex differences in human physiology, and that these differences are not sufficiently reversed by transgender hormone therapies. Supporters of transgender athletes argue that medically prescribed puberty blockers and estrogen suppress testosterone levels and reduce the muscle mass of transgender women, reducing possible competitive advantages.[2][3] Supporters also argue that sport, particularly youth sports, is also about belonging, well-being, and socialization of young people.[4] The American Medical Association states that legislation barring trans women from women's sports harms the mental health of transgender people.[5]

The controversy has caused debates regarding sex verification in sports. Since the mid-twentieth century, sports institutions have responded to the participation of transgender women and women suspected to be transgender, male, or intersex by adding eligibility requirements to women's sports variously determined by physical examination, sex chromosomes, and sex hormones.[16] Proponents of such regulations regard them as necessary to ensure fair competition and women's safety.[14][15][17] Opponents have criticized such regulations as unfounded, degrading, misogynistic, discriminatory against transgender and intersex women, disproportionately affecting women of color, and violating medical ethics and human rights.[7][9][10][11][18][19][20][excessive citations]

As of April 2023, there is no unifying international framework for the participation of transgender people in competitive sports. Traditionally, the inclusion criteria for women's sports have been decided upon by individual sporting bodies at the national and international level.[citation needed] In the United States, an anti-LGBT movement emerging in the early 2020s has led to some U.S. states passing legislation restricting the participation of transgender youth in high school sports or of trans women and girls in women's sports. Several international governing bodies including World Athletics, World Aquatics and World Rugby have restricted trans women who had undergone male puberty from participating in the female category.[21][22][23][24]

History of transgender athletes in competition

Historically, sport has been seen as a male domain.[1] The masculine perception of sport was first moderated with the rise of women's sports and further challenged with the gradual acceptance of gay sportsmen.[1] A third departure from tradition occurred with the emergence of trans athletes, many of whom challenge the culturally accepted binary gender norms of male and female.[1]

Renée Richards

Main article: Renée Richards

One of the earliest high-profile transgender athletes was tennis player Renée Richards. Already a promising tennis player in the men's circuit, Richards underwent gender reassignment therapy in 1975 and started playing in women's tournaments a year later. Her discovery and the resulting media frenzy sparked protests.[25] After she accepted an invitation to a warm-up tournament for the US Open, the Women's Tennis Association (WTA) and the United States Tennis Association (USTA) withdrew their support and 25 of the 32 women pulled out of the tournament.[26]

As a result, the USTA and WTA introduced the Barr body test, which identifies a person's sex chromosomes. Richards refused to take the test and was banned from the US Open.[25] She filed a lawsuit in 1977, claiming that her civil rights were violated and that the policy was unfair. The New York Supreme Court ruled in her favor, saying that the Barr body test as the sole determinant of sex was "grossly unfair" and ruled Richards legally female.[27] She then competed in the 1977 US Open at the age of 43, reaching the doubles final; she retired four years later.[25] At the time, the ruling in Richards's case did not lead to major changes outside of tennis.[27]

Olympics

In 2003, a committee convened by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Medical Commission drew up new guidelines for participating athletes who had undergone gender reassignment. The report listed three conditions for participation. First, athletes must have undergone sex reassignment surgery, including changes in the external genitalia and gonadectomy. Second, athletes must show legal recognition of their gender. Third, athletes must have undergone hormone therapy for an appropriate time before participation, with two years being the suggested time.[28]

It was not until 2004 that the IOC allowed transgender athletes to participate in the Olympic Games.[13]

In 2015, the IOC modified these guidelines in recognition that legal recognition of gender could be difficult in countries where gender transition is not legal, and that requiring surgery in otherwise healthy individuals "may be inconsistent with developing legislation and notions of human rights".[12][29] The new guidelines require only that trans woman athletes declare their gender and not change that assertion for four years, as well as demonstrate a testosterone level of less than 10 nanomoles per liter for at least one year prior to competition and throughout the period of eligibility. Athletes who transitioned from female to male were allowed to compete without restriction. These guidelines were in effect for the 2016 Rio Olympics, although no openly transgender athletes competed.[30]

In 2021, the IOC approved Laurel Hubbard, a trans woman, to compete in the 2020 Summer Olympics in weightlifting. Hubbard became the first out trans woman to compete at the Olympics; she did not complete her lifts and won no medals.[31] Katelyn Burns, an MSNBC Opinion Columnist, suggested Hubbard's performance demonstrates that transgender athletes do not always win.[32] Hubbard competed with the support of her fellow Olympian competitors. Australian weightlifter Charisma Amoe-Tarrant said "I have so much respect for her and wish her and the other lifters the best and hope we can all come together and enjoy the Olympics, because this Olympics right now is quite different compared to others. I've competed with her previously and always had good chats with her, I just wish her well."[33][34]

In 2021, non-binary Canadian football player Quinn was one of the first transgender athletes in the Olympics and the first to medal and win a gold medal

On 21 July 2021, at the same Games, Canadian soccer player Quinn became the first non-binary transgender person to compete and to win a medal competing at the Olympics, playing for the Canadian women's soccer team.[35][36][37] At the 2020 Summer Olympics, they became the first out, transgender Olympian to medal and win a gold medal.[38][39] Alana Smith, a non-binary skateboarder, represented the United States in the women's skateboarding semifinals of the 2020 Summer Olympics.[40]

In November 2021 the IOC issued a non-legally binding framework that focuses on ten principles of inclusion: "prevention of harm, non-discrimination, fairness, no presumption of advantage, evidence-based approach, primacy of health and bodily autonomy, stakeholder-centered approach, right to privacy and periodic reviews". The new guidelines have been described as loosening rules that impede transgender and intersex athlete's participation in Olympic sports, with enforcement of sport-specific rules governing inclusion.[41][42][43][44]

On February 18, 2022, Timothy LeDuc became the first openly non-binary athlete to compete in a Winter Olympics in Beijing. They competed in pairs figure skating alongside their skating partner Ashley Cain-Gribble for Team USA.[45][46]

Others

In 1996, the Iron Ladies, a men's volleyball team made up of gay men and transgender women from Thailand, won the national championship. The Iron Ladies were not allowed to join Thailand's national volleyball team because of the way they dressed.[47]

The first out transgender person to make a US national team was Chris Mosier, who in 2016 qualified for Team USA in duathlon.[30] Mosier is considered the catalyst for the change[48] in the IOC policy on transgender athletes in 2015, when he challenged the policy after initially being banned from the world championship race. Mosier also became the first known transgender athlete to compete in the Olympic Trials in the gender with which they identify, and the first trans man to make a men's Olympic Trials, when he competed in January 2020 in the US Olympic Team Trials in the 50k Racewalking event.[49]

In 2017, Mack Beggs, a teenager from Texas, was required to wrestle against girls throughout the season of his transition from female to male up through the state championship, despite wanting to wrestle against boys. This was due to state sport regulations requiring athletes to compete alongside athletes of their assigned sex. Some opponents say the testosterone prescribed as part of his transition gives him an unfair advantage and made it unsafe for the other wrestlers. (He finished the regular season at 52–0 and won the state championship.)[50]

In October 2018, Veronica Ivy (then known as Rachel McKinnon) won a gold medal at the cycling Masters World Track Championship in Los Angeles.[51][52]

Lia Thomas swam for the University of Pennsylvania men's swim team and later the women's swim team

Since 2021, media has widely covered University of Pennsylvania student Lia Thomas, who swam for the men's team in 2018–2019, and for the women's team in 2021.[53][54][55] The Washington Post wrote that Thomas was "shattering records".[56] In December 2021, USA Swimming official Cynthia Millen resigned in protest, because of her belief that Thomas has an unfair advantage over her competitors.[57] In February 2022, CNN called Thomas "the face of the debate on transgender women in sports".[58] In March 2022, she became the first openly transgender athlete to win an NCAA Division I national championship in any sport after winning the women's 500-yard freestyle event.[59][60][61] Thomas lost muscle mass and strength through testosterone suppression and hormone replacement therapy. Her time for the 500 freestyle is over 15 seconds slower than her personal bests before medically transitioning.[62][63] Thomas's winning time of 4:33.24 was 9.18 seconds short of Katie Ledecky's NCAA record of 4:24.06.[64] In other races, Thomas has been beaten by multiple cisgender women as well as by Iszac Henig, a transgender man not on hormones.[65] According to Swimming World, by the conclusion of Thomas's swimming career at UPenn in 2022, her rank had moved from 65th on the men's team to 1st on the women's team in the 500-yard freestyle, and 554th on the men's team to 5th on the women's team in the 200-yard freestyle.[66]

In August 2022, USA Cycling, citing new regulations on trans athletes, retroactively stripped trans woman Leia Genis of her silver medal earned at the Track National Championships that had taken place in 2022.[67]

Testing

Main article: Sex verification in sports

Sports organizations have sought a test for sex verification to ensure fairness across all sports. This began in the 1940s with "femininity certificates" provided by a physician. In the 1960s, visual genital inspections were used to confirm gender, followed by chromosomal analysis to detect the presence of the SRY and DYZ1 genes, normally found on the Y chromosome.[6] These tests were all designed to ensure that athletes were only allowed to compete as their sex, but mostly resulted in the exclusion of intersex athletes.[7] Some LGBTQ advocates have referred to sex verification policies as "genital inspection" and "gender policing" of female athletes.[68][69]

The first mandatory sex test issued by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), the world's track and field governing body, for woman athletes was in July 1950 in the month before the European Championships in Belgium. All athletes were tested in their own countries.[8] Sex testing at the actual games began with the 1966 European Athletics Championships' response to suspicion that several of the best women athletes from the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe were actually men. At the Olympics, testing was introduced in 1968.[9][10][11] In some cases, these policies have led to athletes undergoing unnecessary surgery such as female genital mutilation and sterilization.[11] Subsequent reports have shown that the tests could cause psychological harm. Sex verification—identifying athletes whose hormone levels are abnormal compared to others of their purported sex — can cause sex identity crises, elicit demeaning reactions (publicly and privately), isolate athletes socially, and lead to depression and sometimes suicide.[70]

More recently, testosterone levels have become the focus and, at the same time, new guidelines have been sought that would allow successfully-transitioned athletes to compete.[12] Since the proposition in 2003 to use testosterone levels, reputable organizations such as the IOC have adopted strict policies that employ testosterone as a metric to allow successfully transitioned female athletes to compete.[13] More recent guidelines have focused entirely on testosterone levels, such as the IOC's current guidelines, originally set in November 2015, which set limits on transgender athletes' testosterone levels for them to be permitted in women's competition categories.[14] Controversy surrounding the 2020 Tokyo Olympics also centered around testosterone levels, specifically over whether the IOC's guidelines should be amended to set stricter testosterone limits, although this proposed change has been strongly debated.[14] The testing of testosterone alone as a marker for athleticism has been debated.[18]

The increased visibility of trans women in professional sports has led to debates on the IOC policies.[15] Many scientists criticize the policies because of published papers showing that people who went through male puberty retain significant advantages even after a year of testosterone suppression.[17][71] In July 2021, the IOC's medical and science director, Richard Budgett, stated that the 2015 guidelines were outdated.[72] In 2022, new guidelines were released.[73] According to reporting by Sports Illustrated, the new framework "places the responsibility of establishing guidelines for trans inclusion on each individual sport. It also concludes that sporting bodies should not assume that transgender women have an inherent advantage over cisgender women, nor should transgender women have to reduce their testosterone levels to compete."[73] The framework has been criticized by some medical experts who work for sports federations as ignoring the science on sex, gender, and performance and leading to unfair competition. They suggested that rules based on testosterone could vary based on sport and called on the IOC to set standards for sports to follow.[74]

Testosterone, athletic ability and injury risks

Sex differences in human physiology impact performance in sports.[75][76] Debate over whether and how transgender women should compete in female sports often has to do with whether they have an unfair advantage over cisgender women due to higher testosterone levels and skeletal, muscle and fat distribution differences. Testosterone regulates many different functions in the body, including the maintenance of bone and muscle mass.[77]

A 2017 systematic review of literature relating to sport participation and competitive sports policies reported that there is no direct or comprehensive evidence of transgender women having an athletic advantage over their cisgender counterparts at any stage of transition (e.g. cross-sex hormones or sex reassignment surgery), due to the lack of quantitative research on the subject; this made it "difficult to draw any definite conclusions". Only one of the papers in the systematic review took any physical attributes into account.[78] A 2018 extended essay analyzed the current IOC rule set in 2015 (testosterone below 10 nmol/L for trans women) and found that "the advantage to trans women afforded by the IOC guidelines is an intolerable unfairness", while they propose to abandon male/female categories in favor of a more nuanced division.[79]

A 2021 literature review concluded that for trans women, even with testosterone suppression, "the data show that strength, lean body mass, muscle size and bone density are only trivially affected. The reductions observed in muscle mass, size, and strength are very small compared to the baseline differences between males and females in these variables, and thus, there are major performance and safety implications in sports where these attributes are competitively significant."[75] After 24 months of testosterone suppression, bone mass is generally preserved. The review states that no study has reported muscle loss greater than 12% with testosterone suppression even after three years of hormone therapy.[75] It found that trans women are in the top 10% of females regarding lean body mass and possess a grip 25% stronger than most females.[75] They suggest that instead of universal guidelines, each individual sport federation decide how to "balance between inclusion, safety and fairness" due to differences between sports.[75]

A 2021 systematic review found that significant decreases in measures of strength, lean body mass and muscle area were observed after 12 months of hormone therapy, while the values remained above those observed in cisgender women, even after 36 months, suggesting that trans women "may retain strength advantages over cisgender women." Effects of longer duration therapy were unclear due to scarcity of data.[76]

A 38-page draft document from World Rugby's transgender working group in 2020 acknowledged that rugby players who are cisgender women, when tackled by a player who has gone through male puberty, are at a significantly greater risk of injury. The working group calculated that increased injury risk for typical players with female characteristics when tackled by a typical player with male characteristics was between 20 and 30%, and potentially reaching "levels twice as large" in extreme cases where the players are unusually small and large, respectively. Consequently, the document proposes that in the absence of persuasive evidence to the contrary, International Olympic Committee (IOC) guidelines regarding a minimum 12-month lowering of testosterone are "not fit for purpose" in the context of rugby.[80] This move was criticized because there were "no examples of transgender women causing serious injuries to cisgender women".[81]

Sports governing bodies

World Athletics

Starting from 31 March 2023, all male-to-female transgender athletes who have been through male puberty were excluded from female World Rankings competitions.[82] Previously in October 2019, World Athletics had allowed trans athletes with a testosterone level limited at 5 nmol/L.[83] According to regulations from October 2019, in order for a trans woman to compete in the women's category: "3.2.1 she must provide a written and signed declaration, in a form satisfactory to the Medical Manager, that her gender identity is female; 3.2.2 she must demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Expert Panel (on the balance of probabilities), in accordance with clause 4, that the concentration of testosterone in her serum has been less than 5 nmol/L continuously for a period of at least 12 months; and 3.2.3 she must keep her serum testosterone concentration below 5 nmol/L for so long as she wishes to maintain her eligibility to compete in the female category of competition."[84] World Athletics also has rules for intersex/differences of sex development (DSD) athletes. DSD athletes will be subjected to specific rules if they have XY male chromosomes, testes rather than ovaries, have circulating testosterone within the typical male range (7.7 to 29.4 nmol/L), and are androgen-sensitive so that their body makes use of that testosterone. World Athletics requires that any such athlete must reduce their blood testosterone level to 5 nmol/L or lower for a six-month period before becoming eligible for track running events from 400 metres to the mile run in international competition, though World Athletics publicly remains open to extending this to other events based on new scientific study. World Athletics created these rules as a way to ensure fair competition in the women's category.[85]

International Swimming Federation

In June 2022, the International Swimming Federation (FINA), an organization that administers international aquatic sports competitions, voted to bar all transgender athletes from competing in professional women's swimming, with the exception of athletes who "can establish to FINA's comfortable satisfaction that they have not experienced any part of male puberty beyond Tanner Stage 2 (of puberty) or before age 12, whichever is later". FINA also announced the creation of an "open" category for transgender swimmers to compete in.[86]

World Rugby

World Rugby, the sport's governing body, released the "World Rugby Transgender Guideline" in 2020. The guideline is based on player safety and performance advantage. National Rugby governing bodies are encouraged to use the guideline with flexibility to set domestic rules. The Guideline operates as a policy in all World Rugby Tournaments.[87]

As of 2022, transgender women are not allowed to participate in World Rugby sanctioned events. World Rugby states that trans women would retain performance advantage and put other athletes at risk of injury. Transgender men, regardless of whether they transitioned pre- or post-puberty, may play men's rugby if they provide confirmation they have the physical ability to ensure they are not putting themselves at unacceptable risk. Transgender men who have begun a sex reassignment process that includes supplementing with testosterone may not play women's rugby.[87]

World Boxing Council

In an exclusive interview with The Telegraph, World Boxing Council President Mauricio Sulaiman said that the WBC would ban trans fighters from competing against cis fighters, and would instead introduce a separate trans category of competition wherein athletes would be divided by their gender assigned at birth. Sulaiman called for current fighters who may be trans to come forward and register accordingly.[88][89]

International Sport Fishing Confederation

In 2023, the International Sport Fishing Confederation (Confédération Internationale de la Pêche Sportive) enacted a ban on trans women from competing in the women's competition category, citing a perceived physical advantage at fishing. This decision was criticised by some as 'absolutely discriminatory', while gender critical advocates hailed it as a victory for future generations. [90]

International Chess Federation

In August 2023, the International Chess Federation, or FIDE, implemented a ban on trans women from playing chess in official FIDE women's tournaments as well as tournaments providing qualification spots to the Women's Chess World Cup. Additionally, they implemented rules stripping trans men of any women's titles they might have earned while competing as women.[91][92][93]

National approaches

Canada

Canadian sport organizations must comply with the Canadian Human Rights Act, which includes gender identity and expression as a prohibited ground for discrimination.[94][improper synthesis?]

The Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) is recognized[by whom?] as the Canadian policy leader for transgender people's participation in sport at the national level. In 2016, CCES issued guidance which sets out that, until international rules apply, athletes should be able to participate in the gender with which they identify without being subject to any requirements that are different from those of cisgender athletes, unless there is a specific and legitimate reason for the requirement.[95]

As an athlete moves into competitions governed by international rules, the athlete will decide whether to compete under the applicable international rules. Canadian sport organizations should not consider the athlete's ultimate decision when selecting athletes to represent Canada in international competitions.[95]

Some sports organizations such as viaSport, Ringette Canada, and Gymnastics Canada have policies which align to the CCES guidance.[96][97][98] Rugby Canada responded to World Rugby's guidance by releasing a statement recommitting to the "Rugby Canada TransInclusion Policy", which is aligned to the CCES guidance.[99][100] Others, like Swimming Canada, have not fully aligned to the CCES guidance. For example, to swim in national selection events, transgender swimmers must provide written proof that they are eligible for international competition from the international swimming federation to Swimming Canada.[101] Canadian Women and Sport, a group advocating for the advancement of women and girls in sport, does not believe the inclusion of transgender women and girls threatens the advancement of women in sport.[102]

Public opinion polling indicates most Canadians believe it is unfair for transgender women to compete in women's sports.[103]

United Kingdom

UK Sport published guidance for transgender inclusion in September 2021, which concludes that there is not a competitive model where the inclusion of transgender people allows safety and fairness to coexist.[104] The Sports Council will work with the National Governing Body (NGB) and Scottish Governing Body (SGB) to find the optimal outcome under a framework that defines the priorities of the sport bodies. NGB and SGB will prioritize transgender inclusion, fairness, and safety equally to develop a decision-making model for their sports.[105]

UK Sport believes there is not yet enough evidence to prove that the suppression of testosterone for 12 months achieves parity of strength, stamina and physique for transgender women compared with females. UK Sport believes there is enough evidence to show testosterone supplementation in transgender men seems to create parity within the strength and speed of males. They believe there is evidence to show bone conformation remains and should be considered in sports where safety is relevant.[105]

In September 2021, the UK Sports Council Equality Group issued new guidance saying that in their view, trans inclusion and "competitive fairness" cannot coexist in sports. The SCEG based its guidance on 300 interviews regarding personal opinions on the matter, conducted across 54 sports and 175 organisations, with only 20 of those interviewed being trans people.[106]

In April 2022, the Prime Minister Boris Johnson said he believed that transgender women should not compete in women's sport.[107] Conservative UK culture secretary Nadine Dorries met with the heads of UK sporting bodies in June of the same year and told them that "elite and competitive women's sport must be reserved for people born of the female sex".[108]

In July 2022, the British Triathlon issued a blanket policy banning any athletes not assigned female at birth above the age of 12 from competing, instead requiring them to compete in a newly announced "open" category. This was a reversal of an earlier 2018 policy which allowed for trans inclusion once certain hormonal prerequisites had been met.[109]

British Triathlon Chief Executive Andy Salmon was reported as stating that he was not "aware" of any elite-level trans athletes competing in triathlons in Britain, but did not want the governing body to wait for "that to be a problem" before it "tried to fix it".[109] Later that same month, both the Rugby Football League and the Rugby Football Union implemented similar bans. Both organisations described this as "a precautionary approach".[108]

In May 2023 British Cycling banned transgender women from participating in competitive events in the women's category stating, "Research studies indicate that even with the suppression of testosterone, transgender women who transition post-puberty retain a performance advantage,".[110] British Cycling explained the different policies for competitive and non-competitive by stating, "The two key drivers for the two policies – on the competitive policy, fairness is absolutely a driving factor. On the noncompetitive policy inclusivity is absolutely the driving factor."[111]

New Zealand

Sport New Zealand and High Performance Sport New Zealand, crown agencies that lead active recreation and sport across New Zealand,[112] are developing guiding principles for the inclusion of transgender participants in community sport.[113] This publication will guide sport and recreation organizations at a national level toward developing a policy within their respective sport codes covering transgender inclusion in community sport, but not elite sport.[114]

New Zealand Rugby is reviewing its own transgender guidelines for grassroots community rugby with Sport New Zealand in consultation with stakeholders.[115] Their stance on elite sport remains consistent with World Rugby's transgender eligibility and participation policy for professional rugby.[115]

Australia

In June 2019, Sport Australia and the Australian Human Rights Commission published a report together with the Coalition of Major Professional and Participation Sports (COMPPS).[116] The report is targeted to sporting organizations at all levels from community sport to elite sport in the context of promoting an inclusive environment for transgender and gender diverse people in sport across the country. The COMPPS consists of member organisations in Australia including: Australian Football League, Cricket Australia, Football Federation Australia, National Rugby League, Netball Australia, Rugby Australia and Tennis Australia.

Rugby Australia released guidelines which permit transgender participants to play the game on a case-by-case basis for community rugby competitions at the amateur level, but remain aligned with World Rugby's policy for professional rugby.[117][118]

In August 2019, Cricket Australia released their guidelines for inclusion.[119] The guidelines serve to promote an inclusive environment for gender diverse participants playing community cricket and allows players to participate in the gender with which they identify rather than their sex, without requiring medical examinations.[120]

In terms of grassroots sport clubs, the Australian not-for-profit sporting inclusion program Pride In Sport maintains a directory of independent LGBTQ sporting clubs in Australia. This listing published an extensive number of sports having at least one club within each of the states and territories of the country.[121]

In secondary education

Australia

In July 2019, Sport Australia published guidelines on making sport more inclusive for transgender and gender-diverse people.[122]

Canada

Provincial governing bodies for high school sports have independent policies on the participation of transgender or non-binary athletes on sex-segregated teams. Organizations such as the Alberta Schools' Athletic Association, the Manitoba High Schools Athletics Association and BC School Sports each have policies that allow the participation of transgender student-athletes in accordance with their gender identity.[123][124][125]

Transgender or non-binary student-athletes looking to compete in a team consistent with their gender identity in British Columbia must submit an application to the BC School Sports Executive Director, and are required to have a written statement from both the student-athlete and the principal of their high school confirming their gender identity.[125]

United States

Further information: 2020s anti-LGBT movement in the United States § Sports bans
Map of state laws banning transgender athletes from competing under their gender identity, as of September 2022:
  Laws ban trans athletes from participating in sports based on gender identity; enforcing gender classification by registered biological sex
  Laws banning trans athletes from participating in sport under their gender identity are enacted, but currently blocked from enforcement via court order[126][127]

There are no rules federally to regulate inclusion of transgender children.[128] States vary widely on participation of transgender children in sports and which locker room those students should use.[129][130] Many states have tried to mimic the NCAA and IOC rules that rely on testosterone level tests to determine when a trans woman can participate in women's sports competitions. These kinds of rules are more difficult to enforce in secondary education because of the lack of resources to test testosterone levels, and medical professionals are often hesitant to prescribe minors hormones.[128]

An anti-LGBT movement in the United States emerging in the early 2020s has advocated against allowing transgender children to play in sports under their gender identity.[131][132][133] 26 U.S. States have banned transgender people from sports under their gender identity in various capacities. These states include Texas,[134] Arkansas,[135] Florida,[136] Alabama,[137] Oklahoma,[138] Kentucky,[139] Mississippi,[140] Tennessee,[141] West Virginia,[142] South Carolina,[143] Utah,[144] South Dakota,[145] Montana,[146] Iowa,[147] Arizona,[148] Idaho,[149] Wyoming,[150] Indiana,[151] Louisiana,[152] Kansas, Georgia,[153] North Dakota,[154] New Hampshire,[155] North Carolina, Alaska and Ohio. The passage of legislation against transgender youth has seen increases in calls to Trans Lifeline, a suicide crisis hotline run by and for transgender people.[156] Some of these bans only apply to school sports and some only apply to transgender women, but not transgender men. The US Department of Education has said transgender students are protected under Title IX.[157]

  • In Indiana, schools rely on anatomical sex, requiring gender reassignment surgery for trans athletes to compete as their identified gender.[21]
  • Nebraska formed a Gender Identity Eligibility Committee that decides on a case-by-case basis.[21]
  • Texas, Alabama, North Carolina, Kentucky,[22] Idaho, and Florida[158] require trans athletes to compete based on sex assigned at birth.[21]
  • In Alaska, Connecticut, Georgia, Kansas, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, each school district makes their own decision on how to include trans athletes.[22]
  • Maine gives approval for students to choose which team they wish to play on, based on safety and fairness.[22]
  • New Jersey and New Mexico require that trans athletes provide evidence that they have transitioned or are transitioning.[22]
  • Missouri and Ohio require athletes to undergo hormone treatment. Ohio requires treatment for at least a year prior to competing.[22]
  • Oregon allows trans boys and men to participate on male teams. Trans girls and women must be on estrogen replacement therapy for at least a year.[22]
  • Iowa allows trans boys and men to participate on male teams, but bans trans girls and women from competing on female teams.[159]
  • Oklahoma requires any student participating in sports to submit a notarized affidavit of gender assigned at birth, under penalty of perjury.[160]

Hecox v. Little

In March 2020, Idaho Governor Brad Little signed into law the "Fairness in Women's Sports Act", also known as House Bill 500. This legislation, the first of its kind in the United States, prohibits transgender athletes from competing in sports against athletes of the other biological sex. In April 2020, the ACLU and the Legal Voice filed a lawsuit, Hecox v. Little, arguing that this law violates the US Constitution and Title IX.[161][162][163] On August 17, 2020, the United States District Court for the District of Idaho issued a preliminary injunction against the law pending trial, issuing an opinion that the plaintiffs were "likely to succeed in establishing [that] the Act is unconstitutional as currently written".[164] On August 17, 2023, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld this injunction.[165][166]

Soule v. Connecticut Association of Schools

After women's high school competitions were won by transgender student Andraya Yearwood in Connecticut,[167][168] a lawsuit was filed against the Connecticut Association of Schools-Connecticut Interscholastic Athletic Conference (CIAC) and several school boards in federal court to try to stop the participation of transgender athletes.[169] The lawsuit was dismissed in April 2021 by the district court as moot, because Yearwood and Miller had graduated and the plaintiffs would not likely have to compete with transgender athletes in the next season.[170][171]

In October 2021, women's sports icons Billie Jean King, World Cup Champion and United States women's national soccer team Co-Captain Megan Rapinoe, WNBA stars Brianna Turner, Layshia Clarendon, and over 150 athletes in women's sports spoke out in support of transgender athletes and filed an amicus brief in an appeal of the Soule v. CIAC trial court dismissal, along with the Women's National Basketball Players Association (WNBPA), Athlete Ally, and the Women's Sports Foundation, in support of CIAC and affirming the dismissal.[172][173]

On December 16, 2022, a three-judge panel of the Second Circuit Appeals Court ruled against the plaintiffs, citing the 2020 decision Bostock v. Clayton County, in which the Supreme Court ruled discrimination against transgender employees violated Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[174]

D.N. v. DeSantis

On June 1, 2021, Florida Governor DeSantis signed into law the "Fairness in Women's Sports Act" (SB 1028), which banned transgender athletes in public secondary schools and colleges from playing on girls' or women's sports teams.[175]  On June 29, 2021, D.N., born male but identified as female, then 13 years old, filed a complaint with the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida, challenging the law.[176] According to the complaint, D.N. played soccer on the girls' team at middle school and sought to play on the girls' high school team.[176] On November 6, 2023, the court upheld the Florida law.[177] The court held that the law does not violate the equal protection clause of the U.S. Constitution and rejected D.N.'s claim that the law violates Title IX, which bars discrimination based on sex in educational programs that receive federal funds. The court cited Adams v. School Board of St. Johns County, a 2022 decision by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit that upheld Florida's transgender bathroom bill and ruled that Title IX's reference to "sex" does not include "gender identity."[178] The court granted D.N. leave to file an amended complaint.[178]

Proposed Title IX rule change

In April 2023, the Biden administration proposed a Title IX rule change which would declare categorical bans, which ban all trans athletes from teams consistent with their genders, a violation of Title IX, while allowing bans in some contexts, including "fairness in competition". This could mean that bans that apply to elementary school students would be forbidden, but bans on high school and college students would not be forbidden, by Title IX.[179][180]

Post-secondary education

Canada

In September 2018, U Sports, the governing body of intercollegiate and varsity athletics in Canada, released a policy addressing eligibility and best practices for the inclusion of transgender student-athletes at their member institutions.[181] Under this new policy, U Sports student-athletes are able to compete according to their gender identity or sex assigned at birth provided they meet requirements of the Canadian Anti-Doping Program. Transgender student-athletes, like other U Sports athletes, are given five years of eligibility to compete and may only represent one gender of sports team per school year.[181]

United Kingdom

Under the Equality Act 2010, discrimination based on sex or gender reassignment is illegal, but certain sporting activities may be exempt if transgender athletes competing would put cisgender athletes at an unfair disadvantage or be unsafe to others. The UK Equality and Human Rights Commission cautions that "limiting or modifying access to, or excluding a trans person from, the separate or single-sex service of the gender in which they present will be unlawful if you cannot show such action is a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim. This applies whether or not the person has a Gender Recognition Certificate."[182]

United States

In August 2011, the National Collegiate Athletic Association Office of Inclusion published the NCAA Inclusion of Transgender Student-Athletes resource outlining their best practices and policies for the inclusion for transgender student-athletes.[183] This policy permits transgender athletes who are not using hormone therapy to continue to participate on the team that corresponds to their assigned sex at birth. A trans man student-athlete may participate on either a men's or women's team, unless receiving testosterone, in which case he may only compete on a men's team; athletes receiving doses of testosterone as a part of their transition must apply for a medical exemption through the league, as testosterone is considered a banned substance in the NCAA. A trans woman student-athlete is not permitted to compete on a women's team until after one year of testosterone suppression treatment.[183] Ongoing monitoring of treatment and written documentation is required for student-athletes undergoing testosterone suppression.[183]

New Zealand

University and Tertiary Sport New Zealand (UTSNZ) has its own inclusion policy covering transgender and gender diverse athletes in sport.[184] The policy allows transgender athletes to compete in the sport category that aligns to their gender identity. Transgender women are permitted to compete in a men's UTSNZ competition. If a transgender woman has undergone testosterone suppression for 12 months, she may also compete in women's competitions.[184] Similarly, transgender males are eligible to participate in either men's or women's competition (but not both categories within one season), provided they are not undergoing hormone treatment for gender transition.[184] For transgender men who have taken hormone treatment with testosterone related to gender transition, they may no longer participate in women's competitions but can still compete in men's competition.[184]

Public opinion

Australia

In 2021, a poll conducted by Binary Australia, an organisation that opposes trans women competing in women's sports, found that 67.3% of Australians opposed allowing trans women to compete against cis women. The poll found that only a majority of Greens voters (52.1%) were in favour, while the majority of people who vote for Labor (62.9%), the Liberals (78.3%), the Nationals (79.4%) and One Nation (81.1%) were against.[185]

Canada

In a 2021 poll in Canada, 62% of Canadians found it "unfair" to allow transgender athletes to participate in women's sports, while 15% found it "fair".[103]

United States

A 2021 Gallup poll showed that 62% of Americans opposed people playing on teams that matched their gender identity rather than their birth sex.[186] A 2023 Gallup poll found that this percentage had increased to 69%.[187]

A 2022 Washington Post poll found that 58% of Americans were against allowing transgender women to compete with other women in college and professional sports.[23]

However, a 2021 PBS/NPR/Marist poll found 67% of Americans, including 66% of Republicans, opposed legislation that would prohibit transgender student athletes from joining sports teams that match their gender identity.[188][189]

Notable trans athletes

Trans men

Trans women

Non-binary athletes


See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d Anderson, Eric; Travers, Ann (25 May 2017). "Introduction". Transgender Athletes in Competitive Sport. Routledge. ISBN 9781315304250.
  2. ^ Menza, Kaitlin (9 September 2015). "Does Transitioning Affect Sports Performance?". Shape. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
  3. ^ "Trans women targeted in sports bans, but are they really at an advantage?". ABC News. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  4. ^ "Op-ed: Pushing Trans Youth Away From Sports Is Harmful". www.out.com. Archived from the original on 28 February 2019.
  5. ^ "Raft of bills intrude on medical practice, harm transgender people". 16 April 2021. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
  6. ^ a b Reeser, J C (October 2005). "Gender identity and sport: is the playing field level?". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 39 (10): 695–9. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2005.018119. PMC 1725041. PMID 16183763.
  7. ^ a b c Ruth Padawer (28 June 2016). "The Humiliating Practice of Sex-Testing Female Athletes". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 October 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
  8. ^ a b Dohle, Max; Ettema, Dick (2012). "Foekje Dillema". Archived from the original on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2016.
  9. ^ a b c Jordan-Young, R. M.; Sonksen, P. H.; Karkazis, K. (April 2014). "Sex, health, and athletes". BMJ. 348 (apr28 9): –2926–g2926. doi:10.1136/bmj.g2926. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 24776640. S2CID 2198650.
  10. ^ a b c Martínez-Patiño, Maria José (December 2005). "Personal Account: A Woman Tried and Tested". The Lancet. 366: 366–538. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)67841-5. PMID 16360746. S2CID 8742433.
  11. ^ a b c d Pūras, Dainius; Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health (4 April 2016), Sport and healthy lifestyles and the right to health. Report A/HRC/32/33, United Nations, archived from the original on 15 December 2016
  12. ^ a b c "IOC consensus meeting on sex reassignment and hyperandrogenism" (PDF). stillmed.olympic.org. November 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  13. ^ a b c Sykes, Heather (April 2006). "Transsexual and Transgender Policies in Sport". Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal. 15 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1123/wspaj.15.1.3. ProQuest 230686774.
  14. ^ a b c d Ingle, Sean (24 September 2019). "IOC delays new transgender guidelines after scientists fail to agree". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  15. ^ a b c Ingle, Sean (22 July 2019). "How can we end the current impasse over transgender athletes?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2019.
  16. ^ [6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]
  17. ^ a b Ingle, Sean (21 June 2021). "Weightlifter Laurel Hubbard will be first trans athlete to compete at Olympics". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 21 June 2021. the IOC's decision has recently come under fire after scientific papers were published which said that people who have undergone male puberty retain significant advantages, including in power and strength, even after taking medication to suppress their testosterone levels.
  18. ^ a b Sudai, Maayan (3 April 2017). "The testosterone rule—constructing fairness in professional sport". Journal of Law and the Biosciences. 4 (1): 181–193. doi:10.1093/jlb/lsx004. PMC 5570685. PMID 28852563.
  19. ^ Longman, Jeré (4 December 2020). "Rights Group Demands End to Sex Testing of Female Track Athletes". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  20. ^ Knight, Kyle (4 December 2020). ""They're Chasing Us Away from Sport": Human Rights Violations in Sex Testing of Elite Women Athletes". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 8 October 2022. Retrieved 8 October 2022.
  21. ^ a b c d Andrews, Malika (8 November 2017). "How Should High Schools Define Sexes for Transgender Athletes?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g Hacke, Ray D. (2018). "'Girls Will Be Boys, and Boys Will Be Girls': The Emergence of the Transgender Athlete and a Defensive Game Plan for High Schools That Want to Keep Their Playing Fields Level – For Athletes of Both Genders". Texas Review of Entertainment & Sports Law. 18 (2): 131–153.
  23. ^ a b Bahrampour, Tara; Clement, Scott; Guskin, Emily (13 June 2022). "Most Americans oppose trans athletes in female sports, poll finds". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 14 June 2022. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  24. ^ Kim, Juliana. "Transgender track and field athletes can't compete in women's international events". NPR. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  25. ^ a b c Pieper, Lindsay (25 May 2017). "Advantage Renee?". In Anderson, Eric; Travers, Ann (eds.). Transgender Athletes in Competitive Sport. Routledge. ISBN 9781315304250.
  26. ^ Birrell, Susan; Cole, Cheryl L. (1990). "Double Fault: Renee Richards and the Construction and Naturalization of Difference". Sociology of Sport Journal. 7 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1123/ssj.7.1.1.
  27. ^ a b Pieper, Lindsay Parks (April 2012). "Gender Regulation: Renée Richards Revisited". The International Journal of the History of Sport. 29 (5): 675–690. doi:10.1080/09523367.2012.675202. S2CID 143605833.
  28. ^ "Statement of the Stockhold consensus on sex reassignment in sports" (PDF). Pdga.com. 2003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
  29. ^ Cyd Zeigler (21 January 2016). "Exclusive: Read the Olympics' new transgender guidelines that will not mandate surgery". www.outsports.com. Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  30. ^ a b Lauren Steele (2 August 2016). "Chris Mosier First Trans Team USA Member - Rolling Stone". Rollingstone.com. Archived from the original on 24 August 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
  31. ^ Ellingsworth, James; Ho, Sally (2 August 2021). "Transgender weightlifter Hubbard makes history at Olympics". AP News. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
  32. ^ "Olympic athlete Laurel Hubbard just shattered a transphobic myth". MSNBC. 2 August 2021. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  33. ^ "Trans weightlifter Laurel Hubbard backed by Australian rival and New Zealand PM". TheGuardian.com. 22 June 2021. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  34. ^ a b Azzi, Alex (22 July 2021). "Soccer player Quinn is the first out trans Olympian, but won't be the last". NBC Sports. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
  35. ^ "First openly transgender Olympians are competing in Tokyo". NBC News. 26 July 2021. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
  36. ^ "Quinn: Canada's transgender footballer on being 'visible' and playing at the Olympics". BBC Sport. 23 September 2020. Archived from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
  37. ^ "Football - Japan vs Canada - Group E Results". Tokyo 2020 Olympics. 21 July 2021. Archived from the original on 26 July 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
  38. ^ Ring, Trudy (26 July 2021). "Quinn Is World's First Out Trans, Nonbinary Olympian". The Advocate. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
  39. ^ Hart, Robert (6 August 2021). "Canada's Quinn Makes History As First Openly Transgender And Nonbinary Athlete To Win Olympic Medal". Forbes. Archived from the original on 6 August 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2021.
  40. ^ a b "Non-binary Olympian Alana Smith shares moving message". pinknews.co.uk ~access-date=2021-08-01. 30 July 2021. Archived from the original on 1 August 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
  41. ^ "IOC sets new guidance for gender identity policies". ESPN.com. 16 November 2021. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  42. ^ "IOC gives sports new guidance on transgender athlete rules". sports.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on 16 November 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  43. ^ "IOC walks back transgender and intersex athlete policy, but passes buck on ensuring inclusion". sports.yahoo.com. 16 November 2021. Archived from the original on 16 November 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  44. ^ "IOC Framework On Fairness, Inclusion, and Non-Discrimination on the Basis of Gender Identity and Sex Variations" (PDF). stillmed.olympics.com. International Olympic Committee. 16 November 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  45. ^ "Timothy LeDuc Makes History as 1st Openly Nonbinary U.S. Winter Olympian". 19 February 2022. Archived from the original on 19 February 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  46. ^ "Timothy LeDuc breaks the binary in Beijing". February 2022. Archived from the original on 19 February 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  47. ^ Finlay, Leslie (July 27, 2018). "The Iron ladies: Thailand's Fierce LGBT Volleyball Champions" Archived 24 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine. The Culture Trip. Retrieved October 10, 2019.
  48. ^ Rinkunas, Susan (28 January 2016). "The Trans Athlete Behind the Olympic Committee's New Gender Policy". The Cut. Archived from the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
  49. ^ Ennis, Dawn (27 January 2020). "Chris Mosier makes history at Olympic trials, calling it 'incredible and heartbreaking'". Outsports.com. Archived from the original on 27 May 2020. Retrieved 22 June 2020.
  50. ^ "Transgender teenage wrestler Mack Beggs wins Texas girls title". The Guardian. Reuters. 26 February 2017. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
  51. ^ "McKinnon is First Transgender Woman to Win World Title". Cyclingnews.com. 16 October 2018. Archived from the original on 2 November 2018. Retrieved 4 November 2018.
  52. ^ Brassil, Gillian R.; Longman, Jeré (18 August 2020). "Who Should Compete in Women's Sports? There Are 'Two Almost Irreconcilable Positions'". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
  53. ^ "Olympic Champion, Women's Sports Advocate Nancy Hogshead-Makar Details Issues With Lia Thomas Situation". Swimming World News. 25 December 2021. Archived from the original on 27 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
  54. ^ "Penn Parents Express Further Concerns Over Lia Thomas Competing On Women's Team". Swimming World News. 22 December 2021. Archived from the original on 27 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
  55. ^ Webb, Karleigh (9 December 2021). "Anti-trans panic comes to an Ivy League pool". Outsports. Archived from the original on 26 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
  56. ^ Maese, Rick. "A transgender college swimmer is shattering records, sparking a debate over fairness". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  57. ^ Edmund, Emma (24 December 2021). "Official Cynthia Millen Quits, Protesting Lia Thomas' Swimming Participation". SwimSwam. Archived from the original on 26 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
  58. ^ Levenson, Eric (23 February 2022). "How an Ivy League swimmer became the face of the debate on transgender women in sports". CNN. Archived from the original on 9 January 2023. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  59. ^ Barnes, Katie (17 March 2022). "Thomas first transgender athlete to win D-I title". ESPN. Archived from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
  60. ^ "Thomas wins US collegiate swimming title". BBC Sport. Archived from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
  61. ^ Owens, Jason (17 March 2022). "Swimmer Lia Thomas becomes NCAA's first transgender D-I champion in any sport". Yahoo! Sports. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 20 March 2022.
  62. ^ Witz, Billy (24 January 2022). "As Lia Thomas Swims, Debate About Transgender Athletes Swirls". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  63. ^ "'I Am Lia': The Trans Swimmer Dividing America Tells Her Story | Sports Illustrated". 3 March 2022. Archived from the original on 3 April 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  64. ^ "Swimmer Lia Thomas becomes NCAA's first transgender D-I champion in any sport". sports.yahoo.com. 18 March 2022. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
  65. ^ "Iszac Henig, Lia Thomas are All-Americans in women's 100-free". 17 March 2022. Archived from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  66. ^ Lohn, John (5 April 2022). "A Look At the Numbers and Times: No Denying the Advantages of Lia Thomas". Swimming World. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2022. During the last season Thomas competed as a member of the Penn men's team, which was 2018-19, she ranked 554th in the 200 freestyle, 65th in the 500 freestyle and 32nd in the 1650 freestyle. As her career at Penn wrapped, she moved to fifth, first and eighth in those respective events on the women's deck.
  67. ^ Alexander, Dan (2 August 2022). "USA Cycling accused of "transphobia" after individual pursuit medallist stripped of national championships medal".
  68. ^ "Florida passes bill requiring some girls to undergo genital inspections for school sports". 16 April 2021. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  69. ^ "Lia Thomas isn't the first female athlete whose victories have been questioned, experts say". NBC News. 16 March 2022. Archived from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  70. ^ Wiesemann, Claudia (1 April 2011), "Is there a Right Not to Know One's Sex? The Ethics of 'Gender Verification' in Women's Sports Competition", Journal of Medical Ethics, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 216–220, doi:10.1136/jme.2010.039081, ISSN 0306-6800, PMID 21367768, S2CID 26775385, archived from the original on 7 February 2017
  71. ^ "Transgender weightlifter Hubbard's presence in Tokyo unfair: rival". Reuters. 31 May 2021. Archived from the original on 31 May 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2021. Many scientists have criticised these guidelines, saying they do little to mitigate the biological advantages of those who have gone through puberty as males, including bone and muscle density.
  72. ^ Ingle, Sean (30 July 2021). "IOC admits guidelines for transgender athletes are not fit for purpose". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
  73. ^ a b Cretaz, Frankie de la. "The IOC Has a New Trans-Inclusion Framework, but Is the Damage Already Done?". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  74. ^ Ingle, Sean (17 January 2022). "IOC's new transgender guidance criticised as unfair towards female sport". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 8 October 2022.
  75. ^ a b c d e Hilton, Emma N.; Lundberg, Tommy R. (1 February 2021). "Transgender Women in the Female Category of Sport: Perspectives on Testosterone Suppression and Performance Advantage". Sports Medicine. 51 (2): 199–214. doi:10.1007/s40279-020-01389-3. ISSN 1179-2035. PMC 7846503. PMID 33289906.
  76. ^ a b Harper, Joanna; O'Donnell, Emma; Khorashad, Behzad Sorouri; McDermott, Hilary; Witcomb, Gemma L. (28 February 2021). "How does hormone transition in transgender women change body composition, muscle strength and haemoglobin? Systematic review with a focus on the implications for sport participation". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 55 (15): 865–872. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2020-103106. ISSN 0306-3674. PMC 8311086. PMID 33648944. S2CID 232082518. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  77. ^ Anawalt, MD, Bradley; Kirk, MD, Susan; Shulman, MD, Dorothy. "Endocrine Glands and Types of Hormones". Hormone Health Network. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
  78. ^ Jones, Bethany Alice; Arcelus, Jon; Bouman, Walter Pierre; Haycraft, Emma (April 2017). "Sport and Transgender People: A Systematic Review of the Literature Relating to Sport Participation and Competitive Sport Policies". Sports Medicine. 47 (4): 701–716. doi:10.1007/s40279-016-0621-y. PMC 5357259. PMID 27699698.
  79. ^ Knox, Taryn; Anderson, Lynley C.; Heather, Alison (1 June 2019). "Transwomen in elite sport: scientific and ethical considerations". Journal of Medical Ethics. 45 (6): 395–403. doi:10.1136/medethics-2018-105208. PMID 31217230. S2CID 195187653.
  80. ^ Ingle, Sean (19 July 2020). "Trans women face potential women's rugby ban over safety concerns". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 15 August 2020.
  81. ^ Brassil, Gillian R.; Longman, Jeré (26 October 2020). "World Rugby Bars Transgender Women, Baffling Players". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  82. ^ "World Athletics Council decides on Russia, Belarus and female eligibility | PRESS-RELEASES | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Archived from the original on 14 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  83. ^ "IAAF rules on trans athletes' testosterone levels". 16 October 2019. Archived from the original on 29 February 2020. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
  84. ^ https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=63067c17-1ab4-4a08-a132-5e36bda5fc61.pdf&urlslug=Eligibility%20Regulations%20for%20Transgender%20Athletes%2C%20in%20force%20from%201%20October%202019 [dead link]
  85. ^ "IAAF publishes briefing notes and Q&A on Female Eligibility Regulations | PRESS-RELEASE | World Athletics". Archived from the original on 16 November 2019. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
  86. ^ "Transgender swimmers barred from women's events". Al Jazeera. 19 June 2022. Archived from the original on 20 June 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
  87. ^ a b "Transgender Guidelines". World Rugby. Archived from the original on 21 August 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
  88. ^ Davies, Gareth (29 December 2022). "Exclusive: Boxing to introduce new transgender category". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  89. ^ Powell, Jon (30 December 2022). "The World Boxing Council plans to create transgender category". Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  90. ^ "Trans anglers banned from women's competitions by world sporting body". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 22 November 2023. Retrieved 5 December 2023.
  91. ^ "Trans women banned from top level female chess". The Times UK. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 5 December 2023.
  92. ^ "Oh Great, Now I Can't Play Chess Because I'm Trans". The Mary Sue. Archived from the original on 14 January 2024. Retrieved 5 December 2023.
  93. ^ "B. Permanent Commissions / 03. Regulations on Registration & Licensing of Players / Transgender Registration Regulations / FIDE Handbook". International Chess Federation (FIDE). Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
  94. ^ "Government Bill (House of Commons) C-16 (42-1) - First Reading - An Act to amend the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Criminal Code - Parliament of Canada". www.parl.ca. Archived from the original on 18 August 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
  95. ^ a b TransInclusion in SportExpert Working Group (10 August 2022). ""Creating Inclusive Environments for Trans Participants in Canadian Sport"" (PDF). Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 November 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  96. ^ "Viasport Trans Athlete Inclusion Policy" (PDF). viasport.ca. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2023. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  97. ^ "Ringette Canada Trans-inclusion Policy" (PDF). ringette.ca. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 August 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  98. ^ "Gymnastics Canada Diversity, Equity and Inclusion Policy" (PDF). gymcan.org. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  99. ^ "RUGBY CANADA PROVIDES UPDATE ON FEEDBACK TO PROPOSED TRANSGENDER GUIDELINES". Rugby Canada. 3 September 2020. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  100. ^ "Rugby Canada Trans Inclusion Policy" (PDF). Rugby Canada. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  101. ^ "Senior Teams Selection Criteria – Swimming Canada". www.swimming.ca. Archived from the original on 10 August 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
  102. ^ "Position Statement: Trans Inclusion in Sport". Canadian Women & Sport. Archived from the original on 10 August 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
  103. ^ a b Lau, Ai-Men (4 August 2021). "By a four-to-one margin, Canadians believe transgender athletes' participation in women's sport is "unfair": New MLI poll". Macdonald-Laurier Institute. Archived from the original on 2 July 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
  104. ^ "The UK's Sports Councils Guidance for Transgender Inclusion in Domestic Sport" (PDF). Equality in Sport. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  105. ^ a b "The UK's Sports Councils Guidance for Transgender Inclusion in Domestic Sport" (PDF). September 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  106. ^ Powys Maurice, Emma (October 2021). "Glaring holes emerge in new UK trans sports guidance as athletes fear for their future". Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  107. ^ "Trans women should not compete in female sport - PM". BBC Sport. Archived from the original on 11 April 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  108. ^ a b "RFL and RFU ban transgender women from competing in female-only forms of their games". 29 July 2022. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  109. ^ a b Baska, Maggie (6 July 2022). "British Triathlon bans trans athletes from women's competitions and announces 'open' category". Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  110. ^ "British Cycling to ban trans women from female events". BBC Sport. Archived from the original on 26 May 2023. Retrieved 26 May 2023.
  111. ^ Morgan, Tom (26 May 2023). "Emily Bridges, trans cyclist, furious at 'genocidal' British Cycling after elite racing ban". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 26 May 2023. Retrieved 26 May 2023.
  112. ^ "Sport NZ | High Performance | Sport New Zealand - Ihi Aotearoa". Sport New Zealand | Ihi Aotearoa. Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
  113. ^ "Guiding Principles for the Transgender Participants | Sport New Zealand - Ihi Aotearoa". Sport New Zealand | Ihi Aotearoa. Archived from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
  114. ^ "Transgender Inclusion | Sport New Zealand - Ihi Aotearoa". Sport New Zealand | Ihi Aotearoa. Archived from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
  115. ^ a b "New Zealand Rugby consults on transgender policy". Reuters. 22 June 2022. Archived from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
  116. ^ "Guidelines for the inclusion of transgender and gender diverse people in sport" (PDF). Australian Sports Commission. June 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  117. ^ "Community Guidelines for the inclusion of transgender and gender diverse people in rugby" (PDF). Rugby Australia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  118. ^ Coetzee, Dylan (25 July 2022). "Rugby Australia: No change needed in gender participation policy". PlanetRugby. Archived from the original on 16 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
  119. ^ "Guidelines for the inclusion of transgender and gender diverse people in community cricket". www.community.cricket.com.au. Archived from the original on 19 October 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  120. ^ "Sport". TransHub. Archived from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
  121. ^ "LGBTQ Sports Club Directory". Pride in Sport. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
  122. ^ "Australia seeks to bring more transgender people to sports". Agence France-Presse. 13 June 2019. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  123. ^ "Official Handbook - Alberta Schools' Athletic Association (2017-2018)" (PDF). Alberta Schools' Athletic Association. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
  124. ^ "Transgender Policy". Manitoba High School Athletic Association. Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
  125. ^ a b "BC School Sports Handbook (2019-2020)" (PDF). BC School Sports Handbook. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
  126. ^ "B.P.J. V. West Virginia State Board of Education - Order Granting Preliminary Injunction". Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2023.
  127. ^ "Hecox v. Little". American Civil Liberties Union. Archived from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
  128. ^ a b Acklin, Kayla (19 April 2017). "'Hurdling' Gender Identity Discrimination: The Implications of State Participation Policies on Transgender Youth Athletes' Ability to Thrive". Boston College Journal of Law & Social Justice. 37 (1): 107–145. ProQuest 1903812536. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
  129. ^ Sandhya Somashkhar (October 2, 2014). "A question for schools: Which sports teams should transgender students play on?". The Washington Post. Retrieved August 25, 2016.
  130. ^ Katy Steinmetz (16 July 2015). "The Case for Allowing Transgender Athletes in Youth Sports". Time. Archived from the original on 26 August 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
  131. ^ Chung, Andrew (7 April 2023). "U.S. Supreme Court declines to allow West Virginia transgender athlete ban". Reuters. Archived from the original on 29 August 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
  132. ^ McKee, Jake (14 February 2023). "Number of anti-LGBTQ+ bills filed by US lawmakers in 2023 already higher than 2022". PinkNews. Archived from the original on 25 August 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
  133. ^ Miller, Susan. "'War' on LGBTQ existence: 8 ways the record onslaught of 650 bills targets the community". USA Today. Archived from the original on 17 July 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
  134. ^ "Trans kids and supporters say new Texas law will keep them out of school sports". 18 January 2022.
  135. ^ "Arkansas governor signs transgender sports ban into law". NBC News. 26 March 2021.
  136. ^ "On the First Day of Pride Month, Florida Signed a Transgender Athlete Bill into Law". NPR. 2 June 2021.
  137. ^ "Alabama Gov. Kay Ivey Signs Anti-Trans Sports Bill into Law". Human Rights Campaign. 23 April 2021. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  138. ^ "Oklahoma governor signs transgender sports ban". NBC News. 30 March 2022.
  139. ^ "Kentucky Legislature overrides governor's veto of transgender sports ban". NBC News. 13 April 2022.
  140. ^ "Mississippi governor signs bill banning trans athletes from school sports". NBC News. 11 March 2021.
  141. ^ "Tennessee Governor Signs Legislation Banning Collegiate Transgender Athletes". Sports Illustrated. 6 May 2022.
  142. ^ "West Virginia Gov. Jim Justice Signs Anti-Trans Sports Bill into Law". Human Rights Campaign. 28 April 2021. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  143. ^ "South Carolina becomes the latest state to enact a transgender sports ban". NPR. 17 May 2022.
  144. ^ "Utah bans transgender athletes in girls sports despite governor's veto". NPR. 25 March 2022.
  145. ^ "South Dakota governor signs 2022's first trans athlete ban into law". NBC News. 4 February 2022.
  146. ^ "Montana governor signs bill banning transgender students from sports teams". TheGuardian.com. 8 May 2021.
  147. ^ "Kim Reynolds bans transgender girls from female sports, signing Republican-backed law". The Des Moines Register.
  148. ^ "Arizona Governor Becomes Second Official to Sign Anti-Trans Sports Bill Wednesday". Sports Illustrated. 30 March 2022.
  149. ^ "Idaho's Transgender Sports Ban Faces a Major Legal Hurdle". NPR.
  150. ^ "Wyoming bans transgender youths from girls' sports teams". NBC News. 21 March 2023.
  151. ^ Smith, Mitch (24 May 2022). "Indiana Lawmakers Override Transgender Sports Veto". The New York Times.
  152. ^ "Louisiana Becomes Latest State to Ban Transgender Athletes in Schools". 8 June 2022.
  153. ^ "Georgia High School Association Chooses to Discriminate Against Transgender Student Athletes, Issuing Ban Against Competing in High School Sports". 4 May 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  154. ^ Chen, David W. (12 April 2023). "North Dakota Bars Trans Girls and Women From Female Sports Teams". The New York Times.
  155. ^ "Sununu signs bans on trans girls in girls' sports, gender affirming surgeries for minors". New Hampshire Bulletin. 19 July 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
  156. ^ "Texas is pushing the most anti-trans bills in the country. Advocates fear deadly consequences". PBS. 13 September 2021.
  157. ^ "Trans Students Protected Under Title IX, Biden Administration Says". 17 June 2021.
  158. ^ "Florida governor bans transgender women and girls from school sports". www.nbcnews.com. Archived from the original on 1 June 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
  159. ^ "Transgender girls and women now barred from female sports in Iowa". Archived from the original on 3 March 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  160. ^ Goins, Adria (28 July 2022). "Parents of student athletes required to sign gender form by state law". Archived from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  161. ^ Moreau, Julie (16 April 2020). "Idaho's transgender sports ban challenged in federal court". NBC News. Archived from the original on 16 April 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
  162. ^ Kelley, Alexandra (15 April 2020). "Civil rights groups file federal lawsuit against Idaho's transgender sports ban". The Hill. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
  163. ^ Coyne, Marley (15 April 2020). "Idaho Banned Trans Athletes From Competing In Women's Sports—Now Federal Courts Will Weigh In". Forbes. Archived from the original on 17 April 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
  164. ^ Hecox v. Little, 17 August 2020, archived from the original on 11 April 2021, retrieved 5 April 2021
  165. ^ Walsh, Mark (4 May 2021). "Appeals Court Weighs Idaho Law Barring Transgender Female Students From Girls' Sports". Education Week. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  166. ^ "Hecox v. Little". Archived from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
  167. ^ "Transgender track star teens cause controversy in Connecticut". ABC7 Chicago. 22 June 2018. Archived from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
  168. ^ "Transgender teens outrun track and field competitors but critics close behind". ABC News. Archived from the original on 12 March 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
  169. ^ "Girls sue to block participation of transgender athletes". AP NEWS. 20 April 2021. Archived from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  170. ^ Rondinone, Nicholas (25 April 2021). "Federal judge dismisses lawsuit seeking to bar transgender athletes from CT girls sports". Connecticut Post. Archived from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  171. ^ "Soule v. Connecticut Association of Schools". adflegal.org. September 2020. Archived from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  172. ^ "Billie Jean King, Megan Rapinoe, Layshia Clarendon, and Brianna Turner Join More Than 150 Athletes and WNBPA in Supporting Trans Youth Participation in Sports". 14 October 2021. Archived from the original on 18 October 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
  173. ^ "Soule v. CIAC - Athletes in Women's Sports Amicus Brief". Archived from the original on 18 October 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
  174. ^ "Conn. rule allowing transgender athletes in girls' school sports upheld". Reuters. Archived from the original on 17 December 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  175. ^ "Governor Ron DeSantis Signs Fairness in Women's Sports Act". Archived from the original on 28 November 2023. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
  176. ^ a b "Florida Transgender Athlete Ban Violates Title IX, Lawsuit Says". news.bloomberglaw.com. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
  177. ^ "Transgender Athlete Ban Survives Challenge From Florida Teenager". news.bloomberglaw.com. Archived from the original on 30 November 2023. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
  178. ^ a b "D. N. et al v. Governor Ronald DeSantis et al, No. 0:2021cv61344 - Document 137 (S.D. Fla. 2023)". Justia Law. 6 November 2023. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
  179. ^ "Biden administration says schools may bar trans athletes from competitive teams". WaPo. 6 April 2023. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 6 April 2023.
  180. ^ "School Sports Cannot 'Categorically' Ban Transgender Athletes, Under Biden Proposal". NYT. 6 April 2023. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 6 April 2023.
  181. ^ a b "U Sports Press Release - Transgender Student-Athletes" (PDF). U Sports Press Release. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2019.
  182. ^ "Gender reassignment discrimination". www.equalityhumanrights.com. Archived from the original on 16 December 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
  183. ^ a b c "NCAA Inclusion of Transgender Student-Athletes" (PDF). NCAA Office of Inclusion. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2019. Retrieved 27 September 2019.
  184. ^ a b c d "Advocacy and Public Relations Policy" (PDF). University and Tertiary Sport New Zealand. January 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  185. ^ "Binary Poll: Australians want protections for women's sports". Archived from the original on 6 June 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
  186. ^ McCarthy, Justin (26 May 2021). "Mixed Views Among Americans on Transgender Issues". Gallup. Archived from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  187. ^ Jones, Jeffrey M. (12 June 2023). "More Say Birth Gender Should Dictate Sports Participation". Gallup. Archived from the original on 13 July 2024. Retrieved 13 July 2024.
  188. ^ "Anti-LGBT legislation gaining traction in the US, again". 17 May 2021. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
  189. ^ Loffman, Matt (16 April 2021). "New poll shows Americans overwhelmingly oppose anti-transgender laws". PBS NewsHour. Archived from the original on 27 December 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
  190. ^ Florek, Michael (18 February 2017). "Transgender teen wins regional wrestling title despite attempt to ban him from competing". The Dallas Morning News. Archived from the original on 9 August 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
  191. ^ Pruski, Scout (28 November 2018). "Harrison Browne talks Ovi, activism in visit to American University". NBC Sports Washington. Archived from the original on 16 January 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
  192. ^ Luke, Savannah (31 March 2016). "People Profile: Balian Buschbaum". TransgenderUniverse.com. Archived from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
  193. ^ a b Stark-Mason, Rachel. "A Time of Transition". NCAA. Archived from the original on 22 November 2019. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
  194. ^ {cite news |last1=Li |first1=Yanyan |title=NCAA All-American Iszac Henig Competing On Yale Men's Team For His Senior Season |url=https://swimswam.com/ncaa-all-american-iszac-henig-competing-on-yales-mens-team-for-his-senior-season/ |access-date=January 9, 2023 |work=SwimSwam |date=January 6, 2023 |archive-date=January 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230109214402/https://swimswam.com/ncaa-all-american-iszac-henig-competing-on-yales-mens-team-for-his-senior-season/ |url-status=live }}
  195. ^ Henig, Iszac (5 January 2023). "Opinion | I Chose to Compete as My True, Trans Self. I Win Less, but I Live More". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 January 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  196. ^ Longman, Jere (26 January 2004). "DRUG TESTING; East German Steroids' Toll: 'They Killed Heidi'". The New York Times.
  197. ^ "Triathlete Chris Mosier Joins Men of Team USA, Making Transgender Sports History". www.advocate.com.
  198. ^ Zeigler, Cyd (7 June 2015). "Trans endurance athlete Chris Mosier earns spot on Team USA". Outsports. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
  199. ^ "Toronto transgender woman represents Canada in dodgeball | The Star". thestar.com. 5 July 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
  200. ^ "Trans athlete added to Canadian women's dodgeball team". Xtra. 22 May 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
  201. ^ King, Susan (14 February 2005). "A kickboxer's fight for sexual identity". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 22 October 2023. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
  202. ^ Kennedy, Pagan (2008). The First Man–Made Man. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1596910164.
  203. ^ Noble, McKinley (19 March 2013). "UFC's Joe Rogan to Transgender MMA Fighter Fallon Fox: 'You're a F***ing Man'". Bleacher Report. Turner Broadcasting System. Archived from the original on 19 April 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2013.
  204. ^ "Van Gogh vindt titel na geslachtsoperatie normaal" [Van Gogh finds title after sex surgery normal] (in Dutch). 11 October 2009. Archived from the original on 14 April 2015.
  205. ^ "Transgender cyclist is first female finisher at Arizona race". Road CC. 23 November 2016. Archived from the original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
  206. ^ Ingle, Sean (21 June 2021). "Weightlifter Laurel Hubbard will be first trans athlete to compete at Olympics". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
  207. ^ Ballinger, Alex (17 October 2018). "Rachel McKinnon becomes first transgender woman to win track world title". Cycling Weekly. Archived from the original on 24 November 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
  208. ^ "Dr Veronica Ivy – Academic, Athlete, Activist". Archived from the original on 22 December 2019. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
  209. ^ "Transgender champion bodybuilder Janae Marie Kroc – full interview". RoverRadio.Com. 30 July 2015. Archived from the original on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016. It was quite a shock, I'm sure, for everyone. I was known as this Ultimate Alpha Male, which is definitely an aspect of my personality. But for a lot of years I've been hiding a part of who I am. I've been out to my family and friends for about a decade now .. me being the Manliest of the Manly Men .. they've known since they were two, four and six
  210. ^ "Charlie Martin will be first transgender competitor in Nurburgring 24-hour race". www.skysports.com. Sky Sports. 24 September 2020.
  211. ^ Abraham, Timothy (31 August 2023). "Danielle McGahey: Transgender cricketer set to play in women's T20 international for Canada". BBC Sport. Archived from the original on 1 September 2023. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
  212. ^ Matar, Daniella (24 August 2024). "An Italian sprinter will be the first transgender woman to compete at the Paralympics". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 3 September 2024. Retrieved 27 August 2024 – via PBS.
  213. ^ Oliver, Shady Grove (10 March 2022). "'Proud to be an Iñupiaq woman': Apayauq Reitan makes history as first out trans woman in the Iditarod". Alaska Public Media. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 21 March 2022.
  214. ^ "Renée Richards Documentary Debuts at Tribeca Film Festival" Archived April 3, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. April 22, 2011.
  215. ^ "21 Transgender People Who Influenced American Culture". Time Magazine. Archived from the original on 5 August 2016.
  216. ^ "Oklahoma Commission Takes Issue With All Elite Wrestling Hosting Transgender Match". SI. 18 April 2024. Retrieved 13 November 2024.
  217. ^ "AEW Fan Ejected For Aiming Transphobic Sign At Openly Transgender Wrestler Nyla Rose". TMZ. 23 December 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2024.
  218. ^ Witz, Billy (24 January 2022). "As Lia Thomas Swims, Debate About Transgender Athletes Swirls". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
  219. ^ Levenson, Eric (23 February 2022). "How an Ivy League swimmer became the face of the debate on transgender women in sports". CNN. Archived from the original on 9 January 2023. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  220. ^ Ingle, Sean (13 December 2021). "Sport's trans issue is here to stay. But at last, the debate is starting to change". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
  221. ^ Smith, Cam (7 June 2017). "Connecticut transgender sprinter Andraya Yearwood wins two state titles amidst controversy". USA TODAY High School Sports. Retrieved 6 September 2024.
  222. ^ "Record number of out figure skaters headed to Olympics". Outsports. 10 January 2022. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
  223. ^ Bell, Brian C. (24 August 2021). "Paralympian Robyn Lambird brings mission of visibility to Tokyo". Outsports. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  224. ^ "At least 31 out LGBTQ Paralympians competing in Tokyo, a record number". Outsports. 16 August 2021. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2021.

Further reading

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transgender_people_in_sports&oldid=1257232688"