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Centurion

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This article is about the Roman army officer. For other uses, see Centurion (disambiguation).


The Roman Centurion (/sɛnˈtjʊəriən/; Latin: centurio [kɛn̪ˈt̪ʊrioː], pl. centuriones; Ancient Greek: κεντυρίων, romanized: kentyríōn, or Ancient Greek: ἑκατόνταρχος, romanized: hekatóntarkhos) was a professional officer in the Roman army, commanding a group of soldiers called a centuria. The term centurion is derived from the Latin word centurio, which itself originates from centum, meaning "hundred." Initially, centurions were commanders of a unit of roughly 100 soldiers, although the exact number varied over time and by period. The concept of the centurion emerged during the early Roman Republic (509–27 BCE), when Rome's military was based on citizen-soldiers organized into centuries (centuriae), units of 100 men within the Roman legio (legion).

Role

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A historical reenactor in Roman centurion costume. Note that the vambraces used in this reconstruction are an anachronism.

In the Roman infantry, the centurions commanded a centuria or "century". During the Mid-Republic these centuries were grouped in pairs to make up a maniple, each century consisting of 30–60 men.[1] After the so-called "Marian reforms", a century was typically composed of around 80 men, with six such centuries forming a cohort.[2]

Centurions were drawn from five main sources within Roman society and the military. Some were promoted from the ranks of ordinary soldiers, often after holding minor posts under the centurionate. Others, though less commonly, gained their promotion after serving in auxiliary units. The remaining three sources were the most common. One group consisted of individuals from a class whose property qualifications were below that of the equestrian order. These men received their positions in the legions as a reward for merit. Many of them were magistrates from municipal towns who, through their service, secured full Roman citizenship, making them eligible for legionary service and subsequent appointment as centurions in recognition of their prior careers.[3]

A notable fourth category of centurions came from the equestrian order. These individuals (ordinem accepit ex equite Romano) had previously held equestrian status but either lost their wealth, failed to advance in the equestrian career (cursus honorum), or chose to resign from the order. They voluntarily accepted a centurion’s commission in the legions, often seeking a different path to distinction within the Roman military structure.[3]


Seniority

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The centurions of a legion were all subject to a grading system that determined their rank. The centurions of the triarii maniples occupied the most senior position, followed by those of the principes, who in turn were senior to the centurions of the maniples of the hastati. Within each of the three lines, seniority levels increased as individuals progressed from left to right. A further distinction existed between prior and posterior centurions within the maniple, such that the posterior centurion of the maniple of the hastati, positioned at the far left of the line, was the most junior centurion in the legion, while the prior centurion of the maniple of the triarii, situated at the far right of the line, was the most senior. The centurion in question was known as the primipilus, since from the second century the triarii were often referred to as the pilani because of their column-like formation.[4]

Centurions were ranked hierarchically within the legion, with each legion containing 60 centurions, each commanding a centuria. The ranks of centurions reflected their seniority and responsibilities:

Primus Pilus (First Spear): The highest-ranking centurion of the legion, commanding the first centuria of the first cohort. The primus pilus often served as an advisor to the legate (legion commander) and had significant influence over the legion's operations.

Pilus Prior: The centurion of the first centuria in a cohort, ranked just below the primus pilus. Each cohort had a pilus prior.

Princeps Prior and Hastatus Prior: Commanders of the second and third centuriae in a cohort, respectively. These centurions were of intermediate rank within the legion hierarchy.

Other Junior Centurions: Centurions commanding lower-ranked centuriae had titles reflecting their position in the cohort, such as hastatus posterior or princeps posterior.[5]

Qualities

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A centurion was required to meet strict physical, tactical, and leadership standards, embodying the ideals of a Roman officer. They were chosen for their exceptional size, strength, and dexterity, particularly in throwing missile weapons and demonstrating expertise in the use of the sword and shield. Proficiency in all military exercises was essential to their role. Beyond physical capability, a centurion needed to possess key personal traits such as vigilance, temperance, and energy, ensuring they were always alert, self-controlled, and active in fulfilling their duties.

Obedience and discipline were paramount, as a centurion was expected to execute orders promptly and efficiently, prioritizing action over unnecessary discussion. They were also responsible for maintaining strict discipline among their soldiers, ensuring that their troops were clean, well-dressed, and presented a professional appearance at all times. Additionally, they oversaw the upkeep of weapons, requiring them to be polished, rubbed, and kept in excellent condition. In essence, the centurion was the embodiment of Roman military ideals, combining physical prowess, discipline, and leadership while enforcing these high standards among their men.[6]

Uniform and Equipment

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Centurions, as pivotal leaders in the Roman military, were equipped similarly to their soldiers during the early periods of Roman history, but with distinct features that set them apart. In the early Republic, their equipment included bronze or iron helmets, chainmail or scale armor (lorica hamata), and the standard rectangular shield (scutum). They carried the short stabbing sword (gladius), essential for close combat, and a spear (hasta) for thrusting attacks. One of the key distinguishing features of a centurion’s rank was the crest on their helmet. Originally, this crest was mounted longitudinally, running front to back, though its orientation evolved in later periods. This made centurions more visible to their men during battle, allowing them to effectively lead and coordinate their troops.[7]

Late Republic and Early Empire During the Late Republic and the Early Empire, centurions began to wear more ornate and elaborate armor as a symbol of their elevated status. Their equipment was not only practical but also designed to command respect and authority on and off the battlefield. Key features of this period included:

Crested Helmet: Centurions wore helmets with a transverse crest made of horsehair or feathers, running left to right. This distinct design made them easily identifiable amidst the chaos of battle, serving both as a rallying point for soldiers and a mark of leadership.

  • Lorica Segmentata: Centurions increasingly adopted lorica segmentata, a type of segmented plate armor that provided excellent flexibility and protection. While this armor became popular, chainmail (lorica hamata) remained widely used, particularly among centurions in less affluent units or those stationed in less resourced provinces.
  • Vine Staff (Vitruis): The vitruis was a short staff carried by centurions, symbolizing their authority within the legion. It was not only a mark of office but also a practical tool used to enforce discipline among the ranks.
  • Decorative Elements: Centurions’ armor and equipment were often adorned with intricate designs and embossed decorations, featuring motifs such as gods, animals, or other symbols of Roman power. These embellishments further highlighted their rank and distinguished them from ordinary soldiers.

By the High Empire, centurions’ uniforms and equipment became even more elaborate and ceremonial, reflecting the increasing professionalization and hierarchical structure of the Roman military. Their distinctive appearance emphasized their authority and their role as elite officers within the legions. Key features of this period included:

  • Cingulum: A highly decorated military belt worn over their tunic, often featuring intricate metalwork and symbolic decorations. The cingulum was a practical item for carrying weapons but also served as a status symbol.
  • Cloak (Sagum): Centurions commonly wore a red cloak, known as the sagum, which symbolized their rank and authority. The red color was associated with power and leadership and made them stand out visually among the ranks.
  • Greaves: Centurions often wore metal leg guards, or greaves, to protect their shins during combat. These were typically worn on one or both legs and reinforced their distinctive and prestigious appearance.[8]

Late Empire (3rd–5th Century CE)

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As the Roman army adapted to new threats and incorporated diverse influences, centurions’ uniforms became less standardized. The use of chainmail and scale armor increased, while the iconic lorica segmentata fell out of favor. Helmets became more conical, influenced by Eastern and Germanic designs.[8]

In the New Testament

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Matthew's Gospel and Luke's Gospel[9] relate an incident in which a servant of a centurion based in Capernaum was ill. In the Gospel of Luke, the centurion concerned had a good relationship with the elders of the local Jewish population and had funded the development of the synagogue in Capernaum, and when he heard that Jesus was in the locality, he asked the Jewish elders to request healing for his servant. In the Gospel of Matthew, the centurion makes direct contact with Jesus. The stories report that Jesus marveled at his faith and restored his servant to health.

In both the Gospels of Mark[10] and Matthew,[11] the centurion who is present at the Crucifixion said that Jesus was "God's Son". Accordingly, this centurion is considered by many to be the first Christian. In Luke's Gospel,[12] the centurion at the cross said that Jesus was "innocent".

The Book of Acts[13] tells of a centurion named Cornelius whose righteous and generous acts find favor with God. The apostle Simon Peter is told in a vision to visit Cornelius, a Gentile, with whom association was not permitted under Jewish law. The encounter leads Simon Peter to understand that God accepts non-Jews who believe in God and repent. After this revelation, the message of Jesus was evangelized to the Gentiles. Another centurion, Julius, is given custody of the apostle Paul for his journey from Caesarea to Rome in Acts 27.[14]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "manipulus". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
  2. ^ Goldsworthy 2007, p. 47.
  3. ^ a b Parker 1928, pp. 199–200.
  4. ^ Sage 2010, pp. 106–107.
  5. ^ Goldsworthy 2007, pp. 69–70.
  6. ^ Phillips 1985, p. 110.
  7. ^ D’Amato 2012, pp. 20–21.
  8. ^ a b D’Amato 2012, pp. 21–24, 33–38.
  9. ^ Matthew 8:5-13; Luke 7:1-10
  10. ^ Mark 15:39
  11. ^ Matthew 27:54
  12. ^ Luke 23:47
  13. ^ Acts 10:1–11:30
  14. ^ Acts 27:1–3 and verses 6, 11, 31, and 43

Bibliography

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  • Goldsworthy, Adrian (2007). The Complete Roman Army. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05124-5.
  • D’Amato, Raffaele (2012). Roman Centurions, 31 BC – AD 500: The Classical and Late Empire. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84908-796-4.
  • Parker, Henry Michael (1928). The Roman legions. Oxford: Clarendon press. OCLC 1151159640.
  • Phillips, Thomas R., ed. (1985). Roots of Strategy : The 5 Greatest Military Classics of all Time. Harrisburg: Stackpole Books. ISBN 0811721949.
  • Sage, Michael (2010). The Republican Roman Army : A Sourcebook. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415178800.
  • Webster, Graham (1985). The Roman Imperial Army of the first and second centuries A.D. Totowa: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0389205907.
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