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Draft:Issa Ughazate

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The Issa Ughazate or Ugasate (Somali: Ugaasyada ama Boqortooyada Ciise) was a Muslim Somali kingdom that existed in Djibouti, Somalia and Ethiopia from the 16th to 20th century.The Issa Somalis formed the tribal realm under the leadership of a powerful Ugaas, who was elected by dozens of Issa elders from the 12 branches of the clan, following the Xeer Issa. This realm emerged after the Issa warrior Ali Kalageeye repelled an Oromo invasion, leading to the establishment of the Ughazate.[1][2][3]

Issa Ughazate
Ugaasyada ama Boqortooyada Ciise
Late 1500s–1936
Henri Lambert's map of The horn of Africa in 1855, the Issa clan reign on both sides of the gulf of Tadjoura
Henri Lambert's map of The horn of Africa in 1855, the Issa clan reign on both sides of the gulf of Tadjoura
Capital
Other languagesSomali · Arabic ·
Religion
Sunni Islam
Shafi'i
GovernmentMonarchy
History 
• Established
Late 1500s
• Disestablished
1936
Population
• Estimate
135,000[5]
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Adal Sultanate
Imamate of Aussa
British Somaliland
Italian East Africa
French Somaliland
Today part ofEthiopia
Somaliland
Djibouti
Symbols of the Issa clan

Background

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Origins

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Somali genealogical traditions places the origins of the Issa clan in the Early modern period, The Issa clan has produced numerous noble Somali men and women over the centuries, consisted of an Ugaas and including many sultans. Throughout their known history the Issa where known for their military strength and viciousness.[6]

The Oromo invasions and the death of Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim in the sixteenth century brought the most severe social and economic disruption to the Awssa Imamate, dominating traditional Muslim territories from Berbera to Aussa and driving the remaining Muslims either to the extreme east, in the case of the Somalis, or to the extreme north, in the case of the Afars. With the destruction of Islamic religious centers, Islam became nominal as the Fuqahaa, who resolved all legal matters, were no longer present. This created a legal and social vacuum that had to be addressed. The emergence of Xeer during this time, drew its primary themes from Islamic Sharia and developing further after the defeat of the Oromos.[7] Remarkably the Issa are affiliated with the Harla people, Many Somali clans mention they are of Harla descent. Most like the Issa subclan of the Dir.[8] Within the Issa, the Harla are found within 2 clan divisions. The first being the Horroone clan division, where they are called Harla, and they are also found within the Eeleye clan division as Bah Harla and Harla Muse. The Issa traditions regarding the induction of the Harla groups revolve around saint Aw Barkhadle.[9][10][11] According to Issa tradition, the clan traces its origins to Sheikh Issa, who is said to have had three sons: Elye (Abgal), Ali (Walaldon or Holleqade), and Holle (Furlabe). Their descendants are divided into two primary groups: the "three Ise" (descendants of Elye, Ali, and Holle) and the "three followers" (Horrone, Urweyne, and Wardiq). The three followers are considered of extraneous origin: Wardiq possibly from Shayhas lineage, Horrone of Ishak origin, and Urweyne from the Afar.[12]It was the Xeer that founded what is called the Issa confederation by bringing together scattered groups, with or without a blood relationship, to form a kind of alliance in response to the challenging situation of violence and anarchy.[13][14]

While the elders were discussing who would be the guarantor for constitution of Xeer, a young girl claimed to have seen a feral child who lived with the antelopes in the savannah. Intrigued, the father went to check on the veracity of his daughter's words. He did actually see a ten to twelve-year-old child frolicking among the wild animals and decided to capture him. The man pursued the child on horseback, and managed to grab him when night came, having exhausted him during the chase.[15] He presented the child to the wise elders. They were sitting under their usual tree and called the child. What a surprise when they discovered a halo of clouds had formed above the tree. The members of the assembly knew that this could only be a sign from heaven, that had come to help them and end the standstill. They decided to scatter away from the tree, to see who the cloud might move over; but the halo stayed above the child who was under the tree. The wise old men did not hesitate by the grace of God the child had been chosen to become the first Ugaas of the Issas. He was called Gouled Ugaad Maal, in other words, Gouled the Savage, as he was said to have been “caught” among a herd of wild animals.[15][16][17]

Military

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Early 19th century

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In a chaotic time of civil unrest between Afar tribes, the Weima Danakil emerged as a an important factor with around 100 Somali archers, serving as mercenaries for northwestern tribes, mainly the Issa. They keep their Somali language and prefer to marry within their community, avoiding intermarriage with the Danakil. The Danakil see shooting as illegal and depend on the Somalis for archery.[18] The Issa tradition persists with bows and poisoned arrows.[19] In 1838, a violent clash between the Debenik Weima and the Mudaito resulted in significant casualties, with the Mudaito losing 700 and the Weima 140. Reports varied, with Mahomed Ali claiming 1500 Mudaito casualties. The Debne Weima often ally with the Issa against the Mudaito, with the Issa making up about one-third of their forces in these conflicts.[20] The capital city of Aussa is mainly populated by the Afar Mudaito, despite the Issa being against them. The city is divided into Assa-himera, Galeya, Dar, Koorha, and Issa. Centuries ago, the Issa dynasty faced rebellion from the Mudaitos but still maintained a presence in the area. Explorers Cornwallis and Harris R. Kirk noted this in 1841.[21] Many of Issa’s territory on the opposite coast of Ghoubbet-el-Kharab is driven by a strong desire for blood, often attacking the Danakil. They take advantage of a lack of watchmen to commit violent acts. Continuous conflict exists despite seeming alliances, leading to endless blood feuds and revenge.[22] In 1841, while traveling from Tadjoura to the Ethiopian highlands of Shoa, explorer Major Y. Cornwallis Harris saw his escort attacked, with members systematically killed one by one.[23] Ar abadoura is a large plateau made of volcanic material and has green grass for Bedouin herds to graze. In the rainy season, Bedouins, like the Issa nomads, move to this area. According to explorer Rochet d'Héricourt in 1841, Issa nomads camp with the Danakiles on the pastures, with their territory three leagues south of Arabedoura. A special agreement lets the Issa nomads graze their herds with the Danakiles when there is enough rain.[24] In return The Danakils bring their cattle to the Issa nomads when their pastures dry up, especially when rains help the Issa's lands. This interdependence creates harmony between the tribes. Without this, their alliance might be threatened, as the Issa are renowned for their fighting skills and archery.[25] Rochet d'Hericourt states:

"The Somalis Issa, who are of a very fine race: their height is tall, their nose is almost aquiline; a large forehead with regular lines gives to their characteristic face the physical attributes of intelligence; endowed with fiery courage, they love battles, where their skill in throwing the arrow gives them a great superiority over their neighbors, who fear them."[26]

In 1842, the Issa Somali people reside in the southern region of the Gulf of Tadjoura, extending to the territory of Weima Danakil. It is worth noting that a significant portion of the Issa Somali population recognizes Lohitu, the Sultan of Tadjoura, as their chief. Additionally, it is noteworthy that half of the Weima tribe in Tadjoura consists of Issa Somali individuals.[27][28]

Conflict with Egypt, late 19th century

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In the mid-1870s, after defeats in Ethiopia,[29]the Khedivate of Egypt changed its strategy to surround Ethiopia and gain a presence on the Somali coast[30]. In early 1875, Egyptian forces led by Werner Munzinger tried to connect with Menelik by moving west from Tadjoura toward Awassa. However, tough terrain and harsh weather weakened the troops. On November 14, Somali Issa tribe warriors attacked, killing Munzinger, his wife, and most leaders, leading to the end of Egypt's expansion efforts into Abyssinia.[31][32][33][34] Despite previous defeats, Egypt eventually took control of the Somali coastal cities of Zeila and Berbera. In return, Khedive Isma‘īl promised to keep the ports open for trade with all countries, except for the slave trade, and to prevent European military presence. The khedival government also agreed to set customs rates at no more than 5 percent for exported goods and to allow British consular representation in these areas.[35] The Egyptians did not get involved in Somali matters but followed their agreement with Abu Bakr and used bribes to sway tribal leaders called Ugas in Zeila. They appointed leaders from the Issa and other Somali tribes in the Ogaden Desert region southeast of Harar as their official representatives.[35] The Issa controlled territory from Zelia to Harar, including Zeila and the Somali coast to Bulhar, while the Khedivites paid tax to the ugaas of the Issa for using the Zeila and Harar trade route.[36][37] Continuing onto Harar, the Egyptians had to pass through Issa Somali territory, marching through rocky gullies and dry river beds in the hot Guban region, with temperatures hitting 105 to 110 degrees Fahrenheit from May to September. The area had little vegetation and scarce water.[38]The Issa people had an advantage due to their familiarity with the tough conditions, having defeated Munzinger’s forces in mid-1875 in Awassa.[39] The Issa clans had few matchlocks or 'Tower'-type muskets, but also used traditional light arms like lances, daggers, and swords. Despite their old weapons, they were tough opponents.[40]  In comparison, the military force that Ra’uf Pasha of the Egyptians commanded was made up of five infantry units, each unit had fourteen officers, 236 soldiers ( başhi bozuķ ),[41] two Howitzer mountain cannons, and two rocket launchers.[42] At the same time, the Issa tribe was engaged in conflicts with Nole Oromo,[43] the Danakil (Afar) and Gadabuursi clans,[44] After a 5-day standoff, Sheikh Rolia, leader of the Somali Issa tribes, surrendered to the Egyptian forces and was granted protection and the Egyptian flag. This removed the military threat from the Somali Issa, enabling the Egyptians to advance toward Harar by crossing the Issa territory.[45] British observers in Aden reported to London on the invading force's ability to make the Issa surrender.[46] Between June and July 1878, security worsened from Harar to the Somali coast due to an uprising by the Somali 'Issa populations, spreading from Berbera to Harar.[47][48] In July 1878, Raduan Pasha and Ahmad Rami Bey tried to stop an uprising of several hundred rebels. They misjudged the rebels' strength, who surprised and defeated the small Egyptian army. The rebels fled to Zeila. The Egyptians then attacked abandoned villages and burned the homes of ten tribal leaders.[49] Raduan Pasha assessed that the garrison force in the city and nearby areas could not handle a large-scale 'Issa rebellion. He warned the khedival government about this threat and stressed the need for military reinforcements in Harar. Pasha requested the return of an Egyptian warship that had left Berbera.[50] Issa rebels gained control between Harar and the Somali coast, escaping Egyptian rule. Khiri Pasha's government considered re-annexing the Red Sea coastal region and Harar to Sudan.[51] Raduan Pasha tried to attack rebel strongholds in the Harar region in October 1878 but suffered a major defeat, losing twenty-six soldiers, twenty-nine guns, and thirty-eight horses. In November 1878, he took a small force of fifty soldiers and one cannon from Zeila to Harar to negotiate with the rebel leaders. When they did not reach the city, he went to their villages to meet them.[52] Raduan Pasha's calm approach helped to calm the tribes during the rebellion. He met with rebel leaders and agreed on lower taxes. The rebels then signed a ceasefire, allowing transport to the coast and returning stolen goods. Raduan reported success to Gordon, who informed the khedive's government that order was restored and military reinforcements were unnecessary.[53] The ceasefire from Raduan Pasha's talks with the rebels ended quickly, making roads dangerous again by early March 1879. The rebels gained support from more Somali tribes, attacking convoys and damaging communications. Raduan Pasha asked for military help, receiving 1,500 soldiers. He successfully defeated about 370 rebels, and the Issa tribe did not threaten again until 1885.[54][55]

The Egyptian withdrawal from Harar coincided with their exit from Zelia and Berbera to avoid potential uprisings by the Oromo and Issa Somali. Thomas Hunter, the British delegate's first secretary in Aden, feared tribal attacks during the withdrawal could spark a Mahdiyya rebellion like in Sudan. He expressed concern over the Issa tribe potentially taking Berbera and suggested keeping a British warship stationed in the harbor to deter them until Harar's evacuation was done.[56][57][58] To prevent another Issa revolt, Thomas Hunter suggested that the British control Zeila while Egyptian forces remained, using 150 local infantrymen with camels. Then, from a strong military position, they could negotiate the Issa's evacuation from Harar, expecting no issues on the routes due to help from the Somali Issa populations.[59][60] With Egypt gone, the Somalis started to attack European trade convoys: ‘Issa warriors killed 103 Europeans and locals between Harar, Zeila, and Berbera. In November 1885, a violent conflict erupted between the Somali ‘Issa and the Gadabuursi over control of trade routes, resulting in twenty deaths and worsened security on those routes.[61][62] Then following in 1886 the Issa and Afars were at war, and all caravans trading paths where deserted from Zeila going through to Awsa.[63]

Conflict with Britain

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Harald George Carlos Swayne a British explorer reported:

“The day before we left Berbera an enormous column of black smoke, which we estimated to be over two thousand feet high, was seen to rise from the sea-level in the west, over the site of Bulhár, forty miles away. Soon the news arrived that Bulhár had been burnt to the ground. It has been burnt three times since the British occupation, and in 1892 was depopulated by cholera; and three years before that it was raided by the Esa in a dust-storm, and sixty-seven of the people killed.”[64]

After the infamous Bulhar raids the British Empire deployed a Garison of 51 Aden troops, stayed in Zeila while the rest of the Zeila Field Force entered enemy territory. On January 19, 1890, a group of 36 cavalry Sowars raided White Aysa herds near Garissa, killing some tribesmen and taking prisoners. They returned with 100 camels and sheep but were ambushed at night, resulting in the loss of one Indian officer and ten men. The camp was poorly located, leading to insufficient defenses. As the White Aysa attacked, Colonel Stace ordered a charge, resulting in the defenders killing the intruders but suffering 34 casualties[65] Although they later made an agreement with the British Empire, like the Gadabuursi and several other Somali clans [66][67][68][69]

Xeer (customary law)

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File:Xeer Issa book.jpg
Xeer Issa book

The Issa elders, functioning as a cohesive clan family, faced a series of adversities, including civil strife, famine, banditry, trade disruptions, and societal chaos. In response, they established a traditional constitution called Xeer Ciise, characterized by power-sharing principles, uniting the community in their pursuit of stability and order.[70]

as mentioned previously, According to oral tradition shared by Issa elders, many centuries ago, the Issa community's ancestors migrated from Zayla and eventually settled on Sitti Mountain, specifically at Las Harad in Aisha Wereda. To become an Issa elder representing the twelve sub-clans, one had to have both parents alive and a son. A group of forty-four elders held month-long conferences on Mount Sitti to make decisions. Each of the twelve sub-clans took turns providing food for these gatherings. Over time, the elders created 362 unwritten legal codes called "hera. " During one conference, a cloud appeared over the Wardik sub-clan, which was seen as a divine sign. This led to the tradition of selecting the Issa/Somali leader, the Ugaas, from the Wardik sub-clan.[71][1][3]

The Issa clan has an egalitarian social structure, valuing equality among all members regardless of gender. Everyone can share their views about clan matters, leading to consensus-based decisions, even with the Ugaas' highest authority.[72] The decision-making process includes consultation, allowing each male member of the lineage to join discussions on tribal matters in a group called 'shir. ' There is also a court with forty-four representatives from different clan sections, called 'Rer Gendi,' which acts as both a court of appeal and a ritual gathering, meeting only during national emergencies.[73]

Moukhtar, an Egyptian officer who participated in the 1875 Conquest of Harar, noted:

"The Issas government is a kind of Republic, in the sense that the Sheikhs of all the Fakhayez and Rebrate meet at certain times for weeks to decide to decide what to do." all the important questions". The democracy practiced by the Issas demonstrates both great political maturity, since it constantly calls for judgement of everyone, and strong vitality. Deeply individualistic, the Issas are equally proud, They take pride in everything from their warrior values, their Islamic religion that allows them to assert themselves over Christian Ethiopians, and their "independence." The Issas never fail to recall that their territory was not conquered by France, but that its cession was negotiated equally between Lagarde, representative of France, and the Issas chiefs. Also they did not experience any inferiority complex, and they considered the French presence not as a natural right, but as the consequence of a resiliable convention on a day that would suit them"[74]

Richard Francis Burton also reports about the Issa’s administration:

The Eesa, probably the most powerful branch of the Somali nation, extends northwards to the Wayma family of the Dankali; southwards to the Gudabirsi, and midway between Zayla and Berberah; east- wards it is bounded by the sea, and westwards by the Gallas around Harar. It derives itself from Dirr and Aydur, without, however, knowing aught beyond the ancestral names, and is twitted with paganism by its enemies. This tribe, said to number 100,000 shields, is divided into numerous clans : these again split up into minor septs which plunder, and sometimes murder, one another in time of peace. A fierce and turbulent race of republicans, the Eesa own nominal allegiance to a Ugaz or chief residing in the Hadagali hills. He is generally called "Roblay "-Prince Rainy-the name or rather title being one of good omen, for a drought here, like a dinner in Europe, justifies the change of a dynasty.

Rulers

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Name Reign Note Image
Ugaas Ugaadh Maal Late 16th century The first Issa Ugaas, reportedly a Mystical figure
Guuleed Ugaadh
Xuseyn Guuleed
Cafi Xuseyn
Cabdalle Cafi 5th Ugaas of the Issa, buried in harar
Cali Xuseyn
Camar Cali 7th Ugaas of the Issa, buried in Alaf Dabayled
Guuleed Bookh 8th Ugaas of the Issa, buried in Agagh-Madobe
Rooble Guuleed 9th Ugaas of the Issa, buried in Erer
Xuseyn Rooble 10th Ugaas of the Issa, buried in Beyya sonkorey
Rooble Cali
Faarax Guntiweyne
Geele Xoosh
Rooble Faarax ~1880s Ughaz Rooble was the 14th Ugaas of the Issa and was one of the most eloquent and influential Somali figures in the 19th century, capable of amassing 40,000 men at war times[75]
Ughaz Rooble with his nephew, 1885 Jaldessa
Guuleed Rooble 15th Ugaas of the Issa, buried in Arga’a
Cabdi Barre Rooble 16th Ugaas of the Issa, buried in Guguma-‘Ad
Waceys Rooble Early 1900s-1926 Ugaas waceys Rooble the 17th Ugaas of the Issa, Rooble, mortally poisoned in 1926, reportedly by Abyssinians[3]
Xasan Xirsi 1932-1995 Ugaas Xasan xersi was the 18th Ugaas of the Issa, died in 1995
Mustafa Moxamad Ibraahim 2010-present Ugaas Mustafa was elected in 2010, after more than 10 years the issas being leaderless
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Illustration of the infamous Le Pinguin Massacre of French


The  cabinet of Dire Dawa, Ugass Buuh and Ugass Hassan Hersi, Issa and Gurguraa awraja in 1948
Engraving depicting Henri Lambert's assassination published in Le Tour du monde in 1862.


Elders Meeting
Photograph of Ughaz roble in jaldessa, 1885
Issa Somali Raid on the Assaimara, 1935, French Somaliland
An etching of Ughaz roble by Philipp Paulitschke
Dethroning of Ughaz Roble
Issa man and woman in traditional attire (1844)
Legendary Issa military hero
Map of an Issa trade route from Zeila to harar
Issa Somali stands guard outside the abode of Ugaas Robleh Farah at Jaldessa
The Tomb of Sheikh Issa, the legendary ancestor of the Issa coan

References

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  1. ^ a b "Xeer Ciise: Oral customary laws of Somali-Issa communities in Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia - intangible heritage - Culture Sector - UNESCO". ich.unesco.org. Retrieved 2025-01-12.
  2. ^ arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it http://web.archive.org/web/20211220065537/https://arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it/bitstream/2307/2955/1/Halabuur%20-%20n1-2%20-%202009.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-12-20. Retrieved 2025-01-12. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  3. ^ a b c Iye, Ali Moussa (2014). Le verdict de l'arbre: le Xeer Issa : essai sur une démocratie endogène africaine (in French). Dagan. ISBN 978-2-919612-50-5.
  4. ^ Metchnikoff, Léon (1889). Bulletin de la Société neuchâteloise de géographie (in French). p. 95.
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  6. ^ Walsh, Langton Prendergast (1932). Under the Flag and Somali Coast Stories. Melrose.
  7. ^ Rirash, Mohamed Abdillahi (1988). "Effects of Sixteenth Century Upheavals on the History of the Horn" (PDF). Proceedings of the Third International Congress of Somali Studies.
  8. ^ Ferry, Robert (1961). "Quelques hypothèses sur les origines des conquêtes musulmanes en Abyssinie au XVIe siècle". Cahiers d'Études africaines. 2 (5): 24–36. doi:10.3406/cea.1961.2961.
  9. ^ https://en.sewasew.com/p/issa
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  20. ^ Isenberg, Carl Wilhelm; Krapf, Johann Ludwig (1843). Journals of the Rev. Messrs. Isenberg and Krapf, Missionaries of the Church Missionary Society, Detailing Their Proceedings in the Kingdom of Shoa, and Journeys in Other Parts of Abyssinia, in the Years 1839, 1840, 1841, and 1842. Church Missionary Society. p. 45.
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  43. ^ Ben-Dror, Avishai (2018-08-23). Emirate, Egyptian, Ethiopian: Colonial Experiences in Late Nineteenth-Century Harar. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-5431-5.
  44. ^ al-Jamal, Al-Wathā’iq al-ta’rikhiyya, 294.
  45. ^ Shawqī ‘Atā ’Allā h al-Jamal, Al-Wathā’iq al-ta’rikhiyya li-siyāsat Misr fī al-bahr al-achmar, 1863–1879 [Historical Documents of the Egyptian Policy in the Red Sea, 1863–1879] (Cairo: Matba‘at lajnat al-bayan al-‘arabi, 1959), 271. Muhammad Ra’uf basha ila maharadar Khedevi, al-wathiqa ‘arabia raqam 2/3/3 ward ‘Abdeen fi 18 Ramadan 1292 [Muhammad Ra’uf Pasha to the Khedive, paper in Arabic no. 2/3/3 ‘Abdeen, 19 Oct. 1875].
  46. ^ BP 24/21 (1): Hunter to Salisbury, 13–19 Jan. 1876, Aden, 165–68, Correspondence Respecting Egyptian Proceedings on the Somali Coast, 1870–1877 (printed for the use of the Foreign Office, Apr. 1878), British Library, London.
  47. ^ Alfred Bardey, Barr Adjam—Souvenirs d’Afrique Orientale 1880–1887 (Paris: ed. du SNRS, 1981), 69; Fontrier, Abou-Baker Ibrahim, 162–63.
  48. ^ Moore-Harell, Rebecca. Gordon and the Sudan: Prologue to the Mahdiyya 1877-1880 (London: Routledge, 2016), 186–187.
  49. ^ Moore-Harell, Rebecca. Gordon and the Sudan: Prologue to the Mahdiyya 1877-1880 (London: Routledge, 2016), 186–187.
  50. ^ Moore-Harell, Rebecca. Gordon and the Sudan: Prologue to the Mahdiyya 1877-1880 (London: Routledge, 2016), 186.
  51. ^ Al-Jamal, Muhammad Sabri. Siyasat Misr fi'l Soudan al-Qadim wa'l Hadith (Cairo: Maktabat Madbuli, 1988), 234.
  52. ^ Mudir Zaila to Cabinet Secretariat, 10 Rabia al-awal 1296, 4 Mar. 1879, in Moore-Harell, Virginia. Gordon and the Sudan: Prologue to the Mahdiyya 1877-1880 (London: Frank Cass, 2001), 187-188.
  53. ^ Gordon to Khieri Pasha, 30 Muharram 1296, 24 Jan. 1879, in Moore-Harell, Gordon and the Sudan, 188.
  54. ^ Mudir Zaila to Cabinet Secretariat, 22 Rabia al-awal 1296, 16 Mar. 1879, in Moore-Harell, Gordon and the Sudan, 188.
  55. ^ Gordon to Khieri Pasha, 30 Muharram 1296 [24 Jan. 1879], in Moore-Harell, Gordon and the Sudan, p. 188.
  56. ^ FO 403/82: Hunter to Baring, Memorandum Regarding the Proposed Restoration of Harrar to a Member of the Old Ruling Family, 5 Apr. 1884, Aden.
  57. ^ FO 633/55: Hunter to Baring, Memorandum Regarding the Proposed Restoration of Harrar to a Member of the Old Ruling Family, 5 Apr. 1884, Aden.
  58. ^ FO 403/82: Hunter to Baring, Memorandum Regarding the Possibility of Enlisting Somalis and Gallas in Aden, or Opposite African Coast, for the Egyptian Army under English Officers, 5 Apr. 1884, Aden.
  59. ^ FO 633/55: Hunter to Kimberley, 30 Jul. 1884, Aden; Hunter to Kimberley, 31 Jul. 1884, Aden; FO 403/82: Godley to Pauncefote (India Office), 30 Jul. 1884.
  60. ^ FO 633/55: Baring to Granville, 12 Nov. 1884, Cairo; Granville to Baring (Foreign Office), 13 Nov. 1884; FO 403/82: Baring to Granville, 17 Nov. 1884, Cairo.
  61. ^ Paulitschke, Richard. Harar: Forschungsreise nach den Somal. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1893. p. 404.
  62. ^ FO 403/84: Hunter to Egerton, 24 Nov. 1885, Aden.
  63. ^ Reinhardt, Rudolf (1938). "Review of Die Fälschung nach dem neuen Wechsel und Scheckrecht". Kritische Vierteljahresschrift für Gesetzgebung und Rechtswissenschaft (KritV). 29 (65) (4): 436–439. ISSN 0179-2830.
  64. ^ Swayne, Harald George Carlos (1903). Seventeen trips through Somaliland and a visit to Abyssinia; with supplementary preface on the 'Mad Mullah' risings. Cornell University Library. London, R. Ward, limited.
  65. ^ "The Soldier's Burden". www.kaiserscross.com. Retrieved 2025-02-03.
  66. ^ "Agreement between Great Britain and the Gadabursi (Somalia), signed at Zaila, 11 December 1884". Oxford Public International Law. doi:10.1093/law:oht/law-oht-164-cts-405.reggroup.1/law-oht-164-cts-405. Retrieved 2025-02-03.
  67. ^ Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). "Somaliland" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 378–384.
  68. ^ David D. (1977). Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 8.
  69. ^ Issa-Salwe, Abdisalam M. (1996). The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy. London: Haan Associates. pp. 34–35.
  70. ^ Yasin Mohammed Yasin (2010). Regional Dynamics of Inter-ethnic Conflicts in the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Afar-Somali Conflict in Ethiopia and Djibouti (Dissertation). Hamburg: Universität Hamburg. p. 77.
  71. ^ Sheik-Abdi, Abdi (1978), Weekes, Richard V. (ed.), Muslim Peoples: A World Ethnographic Survey, vol. 2, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, p. 700.
  72. ^ Schraeder, Peter J. (1991). Djibouti. World Bibliographical Series. Vol. 118. Oxford: Clio Press.
  73. ^ Lewis, Ioan M. (1961). "Notes on the Social Organization of the 'Ise Somali". Rassegna di Studi Etiopici. 17 (1): 229.
  74. ^ al-Jamal, Al-Wathā’iq al-ta’rikhiyya, p. 295–96. "Min arqan harb mamoriyat Harar, muhafaza 3 ‘Abdeen no. 4, fi 3 Muharram 1293 [From Harar’s Headquarters, ‘Abdeen Palace no. 4, 30 Jan. 1876].
  75. ^ Nuova Antologia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti 1885-09-16: Vol 83 (in Italian). Internet Archive. Nuova Antologia. 1885-09-16.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
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