Femmephobia
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Femmephobia is the devaluation, denigration, and regulation of femininity in any and all genders and sexes. It has to do with societal biases that attack people who behave "like women", irrespective of gender identity, assigned sex, or sexuality. This bias can take many forms, including violence[1], social exclusion, bullying, and humiliation in public.[2] It is distinct from misogyny since misogyny targets women, whereas femmephobia targets femininity and can be applied to all genders.[3] The term femmephobia originates from LGBTQ communities (specifically femme lesbian and sexual minority women's communities) but it targets people within and outside of this community.
Reasons
[edit]Societal structures frequently place a higher value on masculinity than femininity, resulting in the perception of femininity as inferior. This dynamic not only reinforces strict gender norms that require men to be masculine and women to be feminine, but it also contributes to the overall devaluation and regulation of feminine expressions (i.e., femmephobia).[4]
This societal structure also leads to femmephobic associations, such associating masculinity with strength and femininity with weakness. In turn, these norms often pressure men to reject feminine traits in order to align with traditional masculine ideals, thereby perpetuating negative attitudes toward femininity.[5]
Negative attitudes toward femininity, particularly when exhibited by men, are a significant factor contributing to anti-gay behaviors. Research indicates that discomfort with male femininity is a stronger predictor of such behaviors than other factors, including social dominance or authoritarian beliefs.[1]
Societal expectations frequently restrict femininity to specific bodies or identities, reinforcing rigid norms surrounding gender expression. For example, society expects that only cisgender heterosexual women are feminine[6]. Further, society prefers that femininity be expressed by able-bodied, white, thin, and upper-middle class women who perfectly balance the Madonna/Whore dichotomy[6]. Those who stray from society’s demands are met with femmephobia, which functions to police the boundaries of femininity[6]. This regulation of femininity perpetuates the notion that it is excessive or inappropriate in certain contexts, thereby contributing to the prevalence of femmephobia.[7]
Etymology
[edit]The term femmephobia is a combination of the word femme, a French term meaning woman, and the suffix "-phobia," which signifies fear or aversion. Within the context of LGBTQ+ communities, the term femme (or fem) originates from 1940s butch/femme bar culture and communities where a femme (or feminine) lesbian was partnered with a butch (or masculine) lesbian. In modern usage, "femme" refers to queer individuals who express or identify with femininity, regardless of their gender identity or sexual orientation. Femmephobia emerges from this identity and community, and generates a lens to rethink femininity as separate from “societal rules.” The concept of femmephobia is made visible through this lens. Thus, femmephobia refers to the devaluation and regulation of femininity across gender, sex, gender expression, and sexual orientation.[1]
The concept of femmephobia has been explored in various contexts, particularly its role in reinforcing rigid gender norms, marginalizing feminine expressions and penalising any queered notions of femininity.[8] Research suggests that the societal devaluation of femininity can result in discrimination and violence against individuals who display feminine traits, regardless of their gender.
Types
[edit]Femmephobia consists of two interconnected elements: the devaluation of femininity and the regulation of femininity.[6][9]
Anti-Femininity Bias
[edit]This form of femmephobia involves the systemic devaluation of feminine traits and expressions, often privileging masculinity and regarding femininity and things regarded as feminine as inherently inferior to masculinity.[10] Individuals exhibiting feminine qualities may face discrimination or be perceived as less competent or capable.[11] For example, in men's sports, femmephobia is used to shame, motivate or embarrass participants by linking femininity to weakness and mistakes.[12]
Similarly, women in STEM or in the military may feel pressure to suppress their femininity in order to be taken seriously, avoid sexual harassment, or be seen as credible.[13][14][15]
Gender Policing
[edit]This form of femmephobia is the “regulatory” component, which polices femininity such that it aligns with societal expectations based on gender, assigned sex, sexuality, race, ability, and more[16]. These expectations surrounding femininity are called “patriarchal femininity[16]. Another core component of patriarchal femininity is called “masculine right of access.”[17] Masculine right of access refers to the overarching assumption that femininity is for the purpose of attracting men and men’s attention.[17]
Femmephobia reinforces rigid adherence to traditional gender norms and binaries, regulates femininity that deviates from patriarchal norms[18] and punishes those who deviate from expected gendered behaviors. For instance, men who express femininity may face ridicule or social exclusion, which perpetuates the belief that femininity is unsuitable for certain genders.[7]
Similarly, feminine sexual minority women challenge the masculine right of access by not performing femininity for the purpose of attracting men’s attention. They are met with social disapproval, largely from within the LGBTQ+ community, through exclusion, harassment, bullying, and violence.[16][17]
Invisibility and Marginalization
[edit]Individuals who identify as femme report experiencing invisibility within both LGBTQIA+ and broader communities[17][19]. Their expressions of femininity are often overlooked, invalidated or dismissed, resulting in feelings of isolation and a lack of representation.[20] Across various identities, research has found that there is a "masculine privilege" within LGBTQ+ communities.[21][19]
Internalized Femmephobia
[edit]Internalized femmephobia occurs when individuals adopt societal biases against femininity, resulting in self-rejection or self-hatred of their feminine traits. This internalized prejudice can negatively impact mental health and self-esteem.[22][23]
See also
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References
[edit]- ^ a b c Hoskin, Rhea Ashley; Blair, Karen L; Holmberg, Diane (2023-10-02). "Femmephobia Is a Uniquely Powerful Predictor of Anti-Gay Behavior". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 53 (1): 127–140. doi:10.1007/s10508-023-02704-5. PMC 10794376. PMID 37783952.
- ^ "Femmephobia: What's the Impact?". www.trentarthur.ca. Retrieved 2024-12-19.
- ^ Hoskin, Rhea Ashley; Serafini, Toni; Gillespie, Julia G. (2023). "Femmephobia versus gender norms: Examining women's responses to competing and contradictory gender messages". The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality. 32 (2): 191–207. doi:10.3138/cjhs.2023-0017. ISSN 2291-7063.
- ^ "Postdoctoral researcher challenges femmephobia and the harm it causes | Arts". uwaterloo.ca. Retrieved 2024-12-19.
- ^ "Femmephobia: Q&A with Dr. Rhea Ashley Hoskin". trentarthur.ca. Retrieved 2024-12-19.
- ^ a b c d Hoskin, Rhea Ashley; Serafini, Toni (2023). "Critically feminizing family science: Using femme theory to generate novel approaches for the study of families and relationships". Journal of Family Theory & Review. 15 (2): 292–312. doi:10.1111/jftr.12499. ISSN 1756-2589.
- ^ a b Opinion (2015-05-05). "Selfcare Warfare: Femme-what? Femmephobia". The Aggie. Retrieved 2024-12-19.
- ^ Farris, D. Nicole; Compton, D'Lane R.; Herrera, Andrea P. (2020-01-01). Gender, Sexuality and Race in the Digital Age. Springer Nature. p. 126. ISBN 978-3-030-29855-5.
- ^ Hoskin, Rhea Ashley; Blair, Karen (2024-06-11). "The femme factor: Transforming pop culture analyses through femme theory". Sexualities. 27 (8): 1307–1323. doi:10.1177/13634607241259540. ISSN 1363-4607.
- ^ Zempi, Irene; Smith, Jo (2021-08-26). Misogyny as Hate Crime. Routledge. p. 1963. ISBN 978-1-000-43034-9.
- ^ "Valuing femininity | Queen's Gazette". www.queensu.ca. Retrieved 2024-12-19.
- ^ Molnár, Győző; Bullingham, Rachael (2022-07-29). The Routledge Handbook of Gender Politics in Sport and Physical Activity. Taylor & Francis. p. 2028. ISBN 978-1-000-60044-5.
- ^ Bonnes, Stephanie (2022-07-17). "Femininity Anchors: Heterosexual Relationships and Pregnancy as Sites of Harassment for U.S. Servicewomen". American Sociological Review. 87 (4): 618–643. doi:10.1177/00031224221110535. ISSN 0003-1224.
- ^ Bonnes, Stephanie (2023). Hardship Duty: Women's Experiences with Sexual Harassment, Sexual Assault, and Discrimination in the U.S. Military. online edn: Oxford Academic.
- ^ Forsythe, Desiree; Jones, Meg C.; Friedensen, Rachel E.; Vaccaro, Annemarie; Miller, Ryan A.; Stephens, Kat; Forester, Rachael (2024-03-13). "Unpacking Anti-femininity Among Masculine Identifying STEM Students with Minoritized Identities of Sexuality and Gender". Journal of Women and Gender in Higher Education. 17 (3): 186–204. doi:10.1080/26379112.2024.2305774. ISSN 2637-9112.
- ^ a b c Hoskin, Rhea Ashley (2019-02-20). "Femmephobia: The Role of Anti-Femininity and Gender Policing in LGBTQ+ People's Experiences of Discrimination". Sex Roles. 81 (11–12): 686–703. doi:10.1007/s11199-019-01021-3. ISSN 0360-0025.
- ^ a b c d Blair, Karen L.; Hoskin, Rhea Ashley (2015). "Experiences of femme identity: coming out, invisibility and femmephobia". Psychology & Sexuality. 6 (3): 229–244 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
- ^ Goldberg, Abbie E. (2024-01-16). The Sage Encyclopedia of LGBTQ+ Studies, 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-0718-9138-4.
- ^ a b Blair, Karen L.; Hoskin, Rhea Ashley (2015-06-19). "Contemporary understandings of femme identities and related experiences of discrimination". Psychology & Sexuality. 7 (2): 101–115. doi:10.1080/19419899.2015.1053824. ISSN 1941-9899.
- ^ Blair, Karen L.; Hoskin, Rhea Ashley (2015-07-03). "Experiences of femme identity: coming out, invisibility and femmephobia". Psychology & Sexuality. 6 (3): 229–244. doi:10.1080/19419899.2014.921860. ISSN 1941-9899.
- ^ Holleb, Morgan Lev Edward (2019-04-18). The A-Z of Gender and Sexuality: From Ace to Ze. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. p. 115. ISBN 978-1-78450-663-6.
- ^ Gunn, Audrey; Hoskin, Rhea Ashley; Blair, Karen L. (2021). "The new lesbian aesthetic? Exploring gender style among femme, butch and androgynous sexual minority women". Women's Studies International Forum. 88: 102504. doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2021.102504. ISSN 0277-5395.
- ^ Puckett, Jae A.; Levitt, Heidi M. (2015-10-02). "Internalized Stigma Within Sexual and Gender Minorities: Change Strategies and Clinical Implications". Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling. 9 (4): 329–349. doi:10.1080/15538605.2015.1112336. ISSN 1553-8605.