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Protosteloid

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Protosteloid amoebae
Protosteloid development in Protostelium mycophaga
Scientific classification
(polyphyletic)
Phylum:
Amoebozoa
Class:
Mycetozoa
Subclass:
Protostelia[a]

Olive 1970[4]
Orders included[5]
Diversity
Around 40 species[5]

The protosteloid amoebae, or protosteloids (formerly known as protostelids), are a group of terrestrial amoebae capable of developing a tiny fruiting body or sporocarp consisting of a stalk supporting one or more spores. They do not form a natural group; instead, they have gained the sporocarp-forming ability independently from each other during evolution.[5][6]

Description

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Protosteloid phase of Luapeleamoeba (Centramoebida)

Protosteloid amoebae are capable of making simple fruiting bodies consisting of a cellular stalk topped by one or a few spores.[7][8] These are known as sporocarps.[5] All species are microscopic and are typically found on dead plant matter where they consume bacteria, yeasts, and fungal spores. Since protostelids are amoebae that make spores, they are considered to be slime molds.[9]

Protosteloid amoebae are terrestrial,[5] typically found on dead plant matter, including stems and leaves of herbaceous plants, stems and leaves of grasses, bark of living trees, decaying wood and other types of dead plant matter.[7] Some species are aquatic; they live on dead plant parts submerged in a pond.[10][11] Others live on the petals of living flowers and on living tree leaves. Since protosteloid amoebae eat bacteria, yeasts, and fungal spores in the laboratory, it is thought that they also do this in nature.[9] They are thus thought to be predators in decomposer communities.[9]

Diversity

[edit]
Occurrence of protosteloid behavior in Amoebozoa
*Group with at least two protosteloid species. **Group entirely composed of protosteloid species.[5][12][13] Amoebozoa tree based on a 2022 phylogenomic analysis,[14] Myxogastria tree according to the latest (2019) classification.[15]

Protosteloid development has evolved numerous times in different clades of Amoebozoa, a major clade of mostly amoeboid eukaryotes.[16][17] Three of the major groups of amoebozoans, Discosea, Variosea and Eumycetozoa, have at least some protosteloid members, with Variosea being the more abundant in protosteloids.[13] They are entirely absent in Tubulinea, the fourth major group.[5]

Within Variosea, Cavosteliida is the largest protosteloid group, containing four genera: Cavostelium, Nannostelium, Schizoplasmodiopsis and Tychosporium.[13] Another group is Protosteliida, containing the genus Protostelium, the first protosteloid organism to be discovered.[18] In Eumycetozoa are the protosteloid genera Protosporangium within Protosporangiida,[19] and Echinostelium and Echinosteliopsis within Myxogastria.[20]

Within Discosea, several orders contain amoebae that have evolved protosteloid development: the genus Luapeleamoeba and the species Acanthamoeba pyriformis in the order Centramoebida; the genus Endostelium in the order Pellitida; the genus Protosteliopsis in the order Vannellida;[5] and the genus Microglomus in the order Dermamoebida.[12]

Distribution

[edit]

Collections of protosteloids have been made from all continents, including the Antarctic peninsula. Protosteloids have also been found on isolated islands like Hawaii in the Pacific and Ascension Island in the southern Atlantic,[21][22] indicating that protosteloids have a worldwide distribution. Most studies of protosteloid distribution have been done in the temperate zones so they are best known from these areas.[23][24] However, tropical studies have turned up protosteloids, often in great abundance.[25]

Collection and laboratory culture

[edit]

Since protosteloid amoebae are microscopic one must bring their substrates, dead plant matter, into the laboratory to find them. Dead plant matter is placed on the agar surface in a petri plate and allowed to incubate for several days to a week. Then the edges of the substrates are scanned with a compound microscope and species are identified by their fruiting body morphology and amoebal morphology.[9]

When protosteloid fruiting bodies are found they can be moved into laboratory culture onto an appropriate food organism or mix of organisms. This is done by picking up fruiting bodies or spores with a sterilised needle and moving them onto agar in a fresh petri plate that has been smeared with a bacterium or yeast upon which the protosteloid amoeba species has been known to grow. If the spores germinate then the protostelid begins eating the food organism and a culture is established.[9]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The name can vary depending on the taxonomic rank used. Used names include Protostelea,[1] Protostelia,[2] and Protostelida.[3]

References

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  1. ^ Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M.; Bailly, Nicolas; Bourgoin, Thierry; Brusca, Richard C.; Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Guiry, Michael D.; Kirk, Paul M. (2015-04-29). "A Higher Level Classification of All Living Organisms". PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0119248. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1019248R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4418965. PMID 25923521.
  2. ^ Dykstra M (February 1978). "Ultrastructure of the genus Schizoplasmodiopsis (Protostelia)". J. Protozool. 25 (1): 44–9. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1978.tb03865.x. PMID 566326.
  3. ^ Olive LS (1967). "The Protostelida--a new order of the Mycetozoa". Mycologia. 59 (1): 1–29. doi:10.2307/3756938. JSTOR 3756938. PMID 6068269.
  4. ^ Olive, Lindsay S. (1970). "The Mycetozoa: a revised classification". Botanical Review. 36 (1): 59–89. JSTOR 4353787.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Spiegel, Frederick W.; Shadwick, Lora L.; Ndiritu, George G.; Brown, Matthew W.; Aguilar, Maria; Shadwick, John D. (2017). "Protosteloid amoebae (Protosteliida, Protosporangiida, Cavosteliida, Schizoplasmodiida, Fractoviteliida, and sporocarpic members of Vannellida, Centramoebida, and Pellitida)". In Archibald, John M.; Simpson, Alastair G.B.; Slamovits, Claudio H. (eds.). Handbook of the Protists. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28149-0_12. ISBN 978-3-319-28147-6.
  6. ^ Shadwick, John D. L.; Silberman, Jeffery D.; Spiegel, Frederick W. (16 October 2017). "Variation in the SSUrDNA of the Genus Protostelium Leads to a New Phylogenetic Understanding of the Genus and of the Species Concept for Protostelium mycophaga (Protosteliida, Amoebozoa)". The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 65 (3): 331–344. doi:10.1111/jeu.12476.
  7. ^ a b Olive, Lindsay S. (1975). The Mycetozoans. New York: Academic press. ISBN 9780125262507. OCLC 1009339.
  8. ^ Baldauf SL, Doolittle WF (October 1997). "Origin and evolution of the slime molds (Mycetozoa)". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94 (22): 12007–12. Bibcode:1997PNAS...9412007B. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.22.12007. PMC 23686. PMID 9342353.
  9. ^ a b c d e Spiegel, Frederick W.; Steven L. Stephenson; Harold W. Keller; Donna L Moore; James C. Cavendar (2004). "Mycetozoans". In Gregory M. Mueller; Gerald F. Bills; Mercedes S. Foster (eds.). Biodiversity of fungi : inventory and monitoring methods. New York: Elsevier Academic Press. pp. 547–576. ISBN 0125095511.
  10. ^ Lindley, Lora A.; Steven L. Stephenson; Frederick W. Spiegel (1 July 2007). "Protostelids and myxomycetes isolated from aquatic habitats". Mycologia. 99 (4): 504–509. doi:10.3852/mycologia.99.4.504. PMID 18065001.
  11. ^ Spiegel, Frederick W. "A beginner's guide to identifying the protostelids" (PDF). The Eumycetozoan Project. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  12. ^ a b Tice, Alexander K.; Spiegel, Frederick W.; Brown, Matthew W. (24 February 2023). "Phylogenetic placement of the protosteloid amoeba Microglomus paxillus identifies another case of sporocarpic fruiting in Discosea (Amoebozoa)". Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 70 (4): e12971. doi:10.1111/jeu.12971.
  13. ^ a b c Iwamoto, Yoshiaki; Nakayama, Takeshi (August 2024). "Nannostelium ampullaceum gen. et sp. nov., a tiny new member of the protosteloid amoeba of the Cavosteliida (Variosea, Amoebozoa)". Protist. 175 (4): 126046. doi:10.1016/j.protis.2024.126046.
  14. ^ Tekle, Yonas I.; Wang, Fang; Wood, Fiona C.; Anderson, O. Roger; Smirnov, Alexey (1 July 2022). "New insights on the evolutionary relationships between the major lineages of Amoebozoa". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 11173. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-15372-7. PMC 9249873. PMID 35778543.
  15. ^ Leontyev, Dmitry V.; Schnittler, Martin; Stephenson, Steven L.; Novozhilov, Yuri K.; Shchepin, Oleg N. (2019). "Towards a phylogenetic classification of the Myxomycetes". Phytotaxa. 399 (3): 209. Bibcode:2019Phytx.399..209L. doi:10.11646/PHYTOTAXA.399.3.5.
  16. ^ Adl, Sina M.; Simpson, Alastair G. B.; Lane, Christopher E.; Lukeš, Julius; Bass, David; Bowser, Samuel S.; Brown, Matthew W.; Burki, Fabien; Dunthorn, Micah; Hampl, Vladimir; Heiss, Aaron; Hoppenrath, Mona; Lara, Enrique; le Gall, Line; Lynn, Denis H.; McManus, Hilary; Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Mozley-Stanridge, Sharon E.; Parfrey, Laura W.; Pawlowski, Jan; Rueckert, Sonja; Shadwick, Laura; Schoch, Conrad L.; Smirnov, Alexey; Spiegel, Frederick W. (28 September 2012). "The Revised Classification of Eukaryotes". The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 59 (2): 429–514. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x. PMC 3483872. PMID 23020233.
  17. ^ Adl, Sina M.; Bass, David; Lane, Christopher E.; Lukeš, Julius; Schoch, Conrad L.; Smirnov, Alexey; Agatha, Sabine; Berney, Cedric; Brown, Matthew W.; Burki, Fabien; Cárdenas, Paco; Čepička, Ivan; Chistyakova, Lyudmila; Del Campo, Javier; Dunthorn, Micah; Edvardsen, Bente; Eglit, Yana; Guillou, Laure; Hampl, Vladimír; Heiss, Aaron A.; Hoppenrath, Mona; James, Timothy Y.; Karnkowska, Anna; Karpov, Sergey; Kim, Eunsoo; Kolisko, Martin; Kudryavtsev, Alexander; Lahr, Daniel J.G.; Lara, Enrique; Le Gall, Line (26 September 2018). "Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes". The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 66 (1): 4–119. doi:10.1111/JEU.12691. PMC 6492006. PMID 30257078.
  18. ^ Shadwick, Lora Lindley (2011). Systematics of protosteloid amoebae (PhD thesis). University of Arkansas.
  19. ^ Olive, Lindsay S.; Stoianovitch, Carmen (30 April 2007). "Protosporangium: a new genus of protostelids". Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1972.tb03530.x. Archived from the original on 2013-01-05.
  20. ^ Fiore-Donno, Anna Maria; Tice, Alexander K.; Brown, Matthew W. (17 October 2018). "A non-flagellated member of the Myxogastria and expansion of the Echinosteliida". Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 66 (4): 538–544. doi:10.1111/jeu.12694.
  21. ^ Spiegel, Frederick W.; John D. L. Shadwick; Lora A. Lindley; Matt Brown; Don E. Hemmes (2007). "Protostelids of the Hawaiian archipelago". Innoculum. 59 (2): 38.
  22. ^ Landolt, John C.; John D.L. Shadwick; Steven L. Stephenson (30 December 2008). "First records of dictyostelids and protostelids from Ascension Island". Sydowia. 60 (2): 235–245.
  23. ^ Zahn, Geoffrey; Stephenson, Spiegel (11 March 2014). "Ecological distribution of protosteloid amoebae in New Zealand". PeerJ. 2: e296. doi:10.7717/peerj.296. PMC 3961141. PMID 24688872.
  24. ^ Shadwick, J. D.L.; Stephenson, S. L.; Spiegel, F. W. (2009). "Distribution and ecology of protostelids in Great Smoky Mountains National Park". Mycologia. 101 (3): 320–328. doi:10.3852/08-167. ISSN 0027-5514. PMID 19537205. S2CID 30686452.
  25. ^ Moore, Donna L.; Frederick W. Spiegel (July 2000). "Microhabitat Distribution of Protostelids in Tropical Forests of the Caribbean National Forest, Puerto Rico". Mycologia. 92 (4): 616–625. doi:10.2307/3761419. JSTOR 3761419.
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