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Workplace health promotion

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Workplace health promotion is the combined efforts of employers, employees, and society to improve the mental and physical health and well-being of people at work.[1] The term workplace health promotion denotes a comprehensive analysis and design of human and organizational work levels with the strategic aim of developing and improving health resources in an enterprise. The World Health Organization has prioritized the workplace as a setting for health promotion because of the large potential audience and influence on all spheres of a person's life.[2] The Luxembourg Declaration provides that health and well-being of employees at work can be achieved through a combination of:

  • Improving the organization and the working environment
  • Promoting active participation
  • Encouraging personal development.[1]

Workplace health promotion combines alleviation of health risk factors with enhancement of health strengthening factors and seeks to further develop protection factors and health potentials.[1][3] Workplace health promotion is complementary to the discipline of occupational safety and health, which consists of protecting workers from hazards. Successful workplace health promotion strategies include the principles of participation, project management, integration, and comprehensiveness:

  • Participation: all staff must be included in all program stages
  • Project management: programs must be oriented toward the problem-solving cycle
  • Integration: programs must be incorporated into company management practices and workplace health-promotion strategies should influence corporate planning
  • Comprehensiveness: programs must incorporate interdisciplinary individual-directed and environment-directed health strategies.[4]

A report by the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work notes growing evidence that significant cost savings can be made by implementing workplace health promotion strategies, and over 90% of United States workplaces with greater than 50 employees have health promotion programs in place.[5][6]

Strategies to promote health in the workplace

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A National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health video on creating an organizational culture of health in the workplace

Strategies for workplace health promotion need to be inclusive to account for diversity in the workforce, and behavioral economics is a key tool for implementing workplace health programs.[7] The United States Department of Health and Human Services includes five strategic guidelines for workplace health promotion in its Healthy People 2010 initiative.[citation needed] These include:

  • Health education, focused on skill development and lifestyle behavior change along with information dissemination and awareness building.
  • Supportive social and physical environments, reflecting the organization's expectations regarding health behaviors and implementing policies promoting healthy behaviors.
  • Integration of the worksite program into the organization's benefits, human resources infrastructure, and environmental health and safety initiatives.
  • Links between health promotion and related programs like employee assistance.
  • Screenings followed by counseling and education on how to best use medical services for necessary follow-up.[8]

More generally, workplace health promotion efforts are implemented at three functional levels, including:

  • Level I: awareness programs such as newsletters, health fairs, and educational classes that may or may not directly improve individual health or influence behavioral change.
  • Level II: lifestyle modification programs of 8 to 12 weeks duration that are available to employees on an ongoing basis and directly influence health outcomes.
  • Level III: the creation of a work environment that assists employees in sustaining healthy lifestyles and behaviors, such as workplace cafeterias offering healthy food choices or the provision of workplace exercise facilities.[9]

In most instances physical activity interventions conform to Level II of this framework and may also include elements from Level III. Incentive-based Fitness Rewards Programs (FRPs) aim to influence employee behaviors and thereby conform to Level I.[citation needed]

Physical activity interventions

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Approximately half of all current workplace health promotion programs are based on physical activity interventions given the relative ease by which employers can advocate such efforts to employees.[10] Employer-sponsored activity interventions in the form of team sports originated as early as the 17th century in the United Kingdom, however, most 21st century interventions rely on employer sponsorship of employee access to health and fitness facilities.[11] Employee convenience to sponsored fitness facilities strongly influences program participation, and facilities located near employee locations of residence hold lower time costs, receive increased use, and yield better program and health outcomes.[12] Women frequently demonstrate lower participation in workplace exercise programs than men, and young, single individuals are often more predisposed to pursue employer-sponsored physical activity initiatives.[13] In many cases, exercise-based workplace health promotion programs struggle to attract those who would benefit the most from such fitness efforts, including aging, sedentary, blue-collar, female, or less-educated employees.[14]

The sedentary nature of many modern workplaces increases negative metabolic risk factors such as high body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood pressure and elevated fasting glucose and triglyceride levels. Breaking up long periods of sedentary time is shown to improve these risks.[15][16] Specifically, utilization of portable pedal exercise machines in office environments has been shown to improve employee health, and use was demonstrated feasible during working hours.[15] Interventions using pedometers to influence employee behavior, decrease the duration of sedentary periods, and increase total movement during the work day have also proven successful.[17] Smartphone applications and workplace signs promoting stair use are known to improve employee health, and many employers are now investing in wearable technologies to encourage employees to monitor physical activity.[18][19] Workplace Tai Chi programs have also proven effective as a health intervention and means of reducing absenteeism, particularly in older workers.[20] Despite these efforts, many health promotion programs struggle with poor participation, and the introduction of incentives is shown to improve employee involvement.[21]

Incentive-based programs

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To encourage physical activity among the workforce, many employers offer financial incentives to employees through Fitness Rewards Programs (FRPs).[12] Seeing that exercise and dieting produce immediate discomfort, the benefits of weight loss are often not noticeable in the short-term, and many people seek long-term health but succumb to near-term temptations of unhealthy eating and inactivity (hyperbolic discounting), maintaining employee involvement in wellness programs is difficult. To solve these problems of immediacy, salience, and hyperbolic discounting FRPs offer financial incentives to employees for healthy behaviors.[22] Though lack of participation remains a problem even among well crafted FRPs, attrition is not random and greater weight loss success is associated with a reduction in later program dropout probability.[22]

Effects of workplace health promotion

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The positive impact of workplace health promotion programs on productivity is widely discussed. The impact of workplace health promotion on absenteeism is substantial since productivity is impossible if an employee is absent.[23] However, the effects of presenteeism are also significant, and working while sick is estimated to cost the United States economy more than $150 billion per year.[24] Absenteeism is estimated to cost the average employer $660 annually per employee.[25] Based on productivity costs, employees experiencing negative health conditions or at risk of developing impaired health cost employers up to $1601 more than healthy employees per year.[26] Improvements in productivity and absenteeism following implementation of workplace health promotion programs can annually save employers $15.6 for every one dollar spent on health initiatives.[6] More generally, employee health care costs and absentee day costs decrease by $3.27 and $2.73, respectively, for every dollar spent on workplace health promotion.[21] In some cases, employer-based health programs have been shown to yield no reduction in health care spending or employer insurance outlay.[27][28]

Relevant to health outcomes, workplace health promotion programs have demonstrated numerous short and long term benefits. Significantly, workplace physical activity interventions are shown to improve employee fitness, activity behavior, unhealthy lipid levels, work attendance, and job stress, and workplace exercise programs are known to reduce supervisor stress and abusive supervision of subordinates, increasing productivity.[29][30] Additional improvements have been noted following workplace health programs in injury incidence, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, body mass index, cardiovascular disease risk, dynamic muscle performance, and maximal oxygen consumption.[12][13][31][32] Some improvements vary by gender, with men often experiencing more consequential improvements in body mass index than women.[16] Workplace health promotion is also known to improve the "perceived health status" of employees, enhancing productivity and improving health program participation.[14]

Summarily, the expected outcomes of an ideal workplace health promotion program include:[citation needed]

  • "Make workers aware of their health and how being in good health improves quality of life."
  • "Workers should take 'ownership' of their behaviors and be accountable for health and cost outcomes."
  • "High participation and active involvement in these programs. People should take advantage of the many programs offered."
  • "Employees should lose weight, stop smoking, exercise more often, eat a healthy diet, better manage their stress levels, and generally adopt healthy habits."
  • "Medical claims costs should go down. The company should experience a lower incidence of certain diseases linked to behaviors like diabetes, heart disease, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), musculoskeletal disorders, and stroke."
  • "Workers will be absent less often, disability costs will be controlled, accidents will be avoided, and injury rates should drop sharply."
  • "These programs will attract the best talent—and turnover rates will be reduced because we are the employer of choice in the community."
  • "Workers will perform at higher levels—they will be happier, have more energy, and produce better results for our company."
  • "Establish a culture of health and well-being, where every worker feels valued and important to the enterprise—this will inspire greater loyalty and a high level of engagement."
  • "The program will produce a positive return-on-investment (ROI) for the company—for every dollar spent, two or three will be saved."[8]

Health promotion in low wage industries

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Approximately half of employees in the United States are employed by small (less than 1000), low wage industries.[33] However, less than 10 percent offer wellness health promotion programs[34] due to lack of financial resource, time and hesitations rooting from investment return.[33] Work health promotion aims to provide better wellbeing to all workers, however, due to economic and social barriers a disproportionate amount of low wage workers are not included in studies regarding employee health promotion.[citation needed]

A 2015 study in Seattle/King County metropolitan area, low wage workers compared to high-earning workers have strong links regarding risky health behaviors.[33] Risky health behaviors are recognized as tobacco use, poor nutrition and sedentary lifestyle which then are factors contributing to chronic disease.[33] This then highlights disproportionate rates of chronic diseases within low-wage earning employees compared to higher socioeconomic earners.[33] It was also revealed in the Seattle/King County metropolitan area study how although the impact of chronic disease are prevalent in low-wage workers, high earners are the group who are more inclined in participating in work health promotion. Low wage industries were found to have barriers including awareness, working conditions, and management.[33]

The largest debate in the Seattle/King County study rooted from the issue of cost. The first cost revealed is the economic financial incentive. Whereby low wage industries examine the importance of investment return. Small companies debate the issue of whether the outcomes of worker health promotion are worthy of investment or labeled as 'organizational priority.'[33] In addition to the importance of profit, is the cost of employee privacy. Human resources managers in the study voiced their issue on privacy and the importance of keeping personal health matters separate from work and their workers.[33]

In addition to high rates of chronic diseases in low wage workers, there are also high rates of morbidity and mortality and hazardous environment exposure because of both socioeconomic and racial disparities.[35] Both gender and racial discrimination are linked to lower wage workers, where women and ethnic minorities contribute to low wage earner statistics.[36] Due to complexities of the environments and workspaces of individual workers with different gender and races, there is a decrease in participants within groups of low-wage workers in worker health promotion programs. Complexities vary to low wage earners contributing to largely part-time earners, wage and benefits distribution, and hazardous field of work.[35]

Suggestions to improve worker participation in low wage industries include convenience and better access.[36] To create worksite vaccinations and healthy diet options, increases the participation for preventive care in these industries.[36] An important factor to access on preventive or worker health promotion programs in low wage industries correlate to better health insurance coverage. The extension and improvement of the Affordable Care Act raises the incentive for both employees and employers to participate in preventive programs.[33] Extension to both full time and part time employees, increases coverage for hazardous work environments, and demographic equity.[35]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c "Luxembourg Declaration on Workplace health promotion in the European Union" (PDF). January 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-10-08.
  2. ^ "Workplace health promotion". WHO. Archived from the original on October 23, 2004.
  3. ^ Burton J (2010). WHO Healthy workplace framework and model: Background and supporting literature and practices (PDF). World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-150024-1.
  4. ^ Chu C, Breucker G, Harris N, Stitzel A, Gan X, Gu X, Dwyer S (June 2000). "Health-promoting workplaces—international settings development". Health Promotion International. 15 (2): 155–67. doi:10.1093/heapro/15.2.155. hdl:10072/3373.
  5. ^ Hassard, J (2012). "Motivation for employers to carry out workplace health promotion." European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
  6. ^ a b Aldana SG (2001). "Financial impact of health promotion programs: a comprehensive review of the literature". American Journal of Health Promotion. 15 (5): 296–320. doi:10.4278/0890-1171-15.5.296. PMID 11502012. S2CID 46879290.
  7. ^ Watson, Towers (2011). "Employee Engagement and Health Plan Management." Towers Watson. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
  8. ^ a b Goetzel RZ, Henke RM, Tabrizi M, Pelletier KR, Loeppke R, Ballard DW, et al. (September 2014). "Do workplace health promotion (wellness) programs work?". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 56 (9): 927–34. doi:10.1097/JOM.0000000000000276. PMID 25153303. S2CID 34408756.
  9. ^ Gebhardt DL, Crump C (February 1990). "Employee fitness and wellness programs in the workplace". The American Psychologist. 45 (2): 262–72. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.45.2.262. PMID 2178506.
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  12. ^ a b c Abraham JM, Feldman R, Nyman JA, Barleen N (2011). "What factors influence participation in an exercise-focused, employer-based wellness program?". Inquiry: The Journal of Medical Care Organization, Provision and Financing. 48 (3): 221–41. doi:10.5034/inquiryjrnl_48.03.01. PMID 22235547. S2CID 8766040.
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  14. ^ a b Pohjonen T, Ranta R (June 2001). "Effects of worksite physical exercise intervention on physical fitness, perceived health status, and work ability among home care workers: five-year follow-up". Preventive Medicine. 32 (6): 465–75. doi:10.1006/pmed.2001.0837. PMID 11394950.
  15. ^ a b Carr LJ, Walaska KA, Marcus BH (May 2012). "Feasibility of a portable pedal exercise machine for reducing sedentary time in the workplace". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 46 (6): 430–5. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2010.079574. PMID 21324889. S2CID 3824698.
  16. ^ a b Lara A, Yancey AK, Tapia-Conye R, Flores Y, Kuri-Morales P, Mistry R, Subirats E, McCarthy WJ (January 2008). "Pausa para tu Salud: reduction of weight and waistlines by integrating exercise breaks into workplace organizational routine". Preventing Chronic Disease. 5 (1): A12. PMC 2248785. PMID 18082001.
  17. ^ Chan CB, Ryan DA, Tudor-Locke C (December 2004). "Health benefits of a pedometer-based physical activity intervention in sedentary workers". Preventive Medicine. 39 (6): 1215–22. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.04.053. PMID 15539058.
  18. ^ Eves FF, Webb OJ, Mutrie N (December 2006). "A workplace intervention to promote stair climbing: greater effects in the overweight". Obesity. 14 (12): 2210–6. doi:10.1038/oby.2006.259. PMID 17189548. S2CID 6556617.
  19. ^ Gibbs S (19 June 2015). "Is "Corporate Wellness" the Big New Thing That Will Keep Fitbit Ahead of the Pack?". The Guardian.
  20. ^ Palumbo MV, Wu G, Shaner-McRae H, Rambur B, McIntosh B (February 2012). "Tai Chi for older nurses: a workplace wellness pilot study". Applied Nursing Research. 25 (1): 54–9. doi:10.1016/j.apnr.2010.01.002. PMC 3029490. PMID 20974089.
  21. ^ a b Baicker K, Cutler D, Song Z (February 2010). "Workplace wellness programs can generate savings". Health Affairs. 29 (2): 304–11. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2009.0626. PMID 20075081.
  22. ^ a b Cawley J, Price JA (September 2013). "A case study of a workplace wellness program that offers financial incentives for weight loss". Journal of Health Economics. 32 (5): 794–803. doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2013.04.005. PMID 23787373.
  23. ^ Wolf K (2008). "Health and productivity management in Europe". International Journal of Workplace Health Management. 1 (2): 136–144. doi:10.1108/17538350810893928.
  24. ^ Hemp P (October 2004). "Presenteeism: at work--but out of it" (PDF). Harvard Business Review. 82 (10): 49–58, 155. PMID 15559575.
  25. ^ Navarro C, Bass C (December 2006). "The cost of employee absenteeism". Compensation & Benefits Review. 38 (6): 26–30. doi:10.1177/0886368706295343. S2CID 154819397.
  26. ^ Mitchell RJ, Bates P (April 2011). "Measuring health-related productivity loss". Population Health Management. 14 (2): 93–8. doi:10.1089/pop.2010.0014. PMC 3128441. PMID 21091370.
  27. ^ Gowrisankaran G, Norberg K, Kymes S, Chernew ME, Stwalley D, Kemper L, Peck W (March 2013). "A hospital system's wellness program linked to health plan enrollment cut hospitalizations but not overall costs". Health Affairs. 32 (3): 477–85. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2012.0090. PMID 23459726.
  28. ^ Lerner D, Rodday AM, Cohen JT, Rogers WH (February 2013). "A systematic review of the evidence concerning the economic impact of employee-focused health promotion and wellness programs". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 55 (2): 209–22. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e3182728d3c. PMID 23287723. S2CID 205723731.
  29. ^ Conn VS, Hafdahl AR, Cooper PS, Brown LM, Lusk SL (October 2009). "Meta-analysis of workplace physical activity interventions". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 37 (4): 330–9. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2009.06.008. PMC 2758638. PMID 19765506.
  30. ^ Burton JP, Hoobler JM, Scheuer ML (September 2012). "Supervisor workplace stress and abusive supervision: The buffering effect of exercise". Journal of Business and Psychology. 27 (3): 271–9. doi:10.1007/s10869-011-9255-0. S2CID 73652151.
  31. ^ Van Rooy K, Sutherland S, Squillace M (January 2013). Mayo Clinic's Mindful Movements in the Workplace. ASSE Professional Development Conference and Exposition. American Society of Safety Engineers.
  32. ^ White K, Jacques PH (March 2007). "Combined diet and exercise intervention in the workplace: effect on cardiovascular disease risk factors". AAOHN Journal. 55 (3): 109–14. doi:10.1177/216507990705500303. PMID 17405587. S2CID 28671111.
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h i Hammerback K, Hannon PA, Harris JR, Clegg-Thorp C, Kohn M, Parrish A (2015-07-01). "Perspectives on Workplace Health Promotion Among Employees in Low-Wage Industries". American Journal of Health Promotion. 29 (6): 384–92. doi:10.4278/ajhp.130924-QUAL-495. PMC 5070972. PMID 25162321.
  34. ^ Carter M, Gaskins S, Shaw L (June 2005). "Employee Wellness Program in a small rural industry: employee evaluation". AAOHN Journal. 53 (6): 244–8. doi:10.1177/216507990505300604. PMID 16018536. S2CID 36157318.
  35. ^ a b c Stiehl E, Shivaprakash N, Thatcher E, Ornelas IJ, Kneipp S, Baron SL, Muramatsu N (February 2018). "Worksite Health Promotion for Low-Wage Workers: A Scoping Literature Review". American Journal of Health Promotion. 32 (2): 359–373. doi:10.1177/0890117117728607. PMC 5770241. PMID 28893085.
  36. ^ a b c Kristal T, Cohen Y, Navot E (2018-07-19). "Benefit Inequality among American Workers by Gender, Race, and Ethnicity, 1982–2015". Sociological Science. 5: 461–488. doi:10.15195/v5.a20. ISSN 2330-6696.
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