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Timeline of black hole physics

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Timeline of black hole physics

Pre-20th century

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20th century

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Before 1960s

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1960s

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After 1960s

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  • 1972 — Identification of Cygnus X-1/HDE 226868 from dynamic observations as the first binary with a stellar black hole candidate[30]
  • 1972 — Stephen Hawking proves that the area of a classical black hole's event horizon cannot decrease[31][32]
  • 1972 — James Bardeen, Brandon Carter, and Stephen Hawking propose four laws of black hole mechanics in analogy with the laws of thermodynamics
  • 1972 — Jacob Bekenstein suggests that black holes have an entropy proportional to their surface area due to information loss effects
  • 1974 — Stephen Hawking applies quantum field theory to black hole spacetimes and shows that black holes will radiate particles with a black-body spectrum which can cause black hole evaporation[33][34]
  • 1975 — James Bardeen and Jacobus Petterson show that the swirl of spacetime around a spinning black hole can act as a gyroscope stabilizing the orientation of the accretion disc and jets[9]
  • 1989 — Identification of microquasar V404 Cygni as a binary black hole candidate system
  • 1989 - Eric Poisson and Werner Israel theorize the concept of mass-inflation, a phenomena in which the curvature and gravitational mass parameter inside a spinning or charged black hole grow to infinity as one approaches the inner horizon, causing an infalling observer to experience a singularity at the inner horizon of the black hole.[35]
  • 1994 — Charles Townes and colleagues observe ionized neon gas swirling around the center of our Galaxy at such high velocities that a possible black hole mass at the very center must be approximately equal to that of 3 million suns[36]

21st century

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References

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  1. ^ P. 328 of Romer, M.; Cohen, I Bernard (1940). "Roemer and the First Determination of the Velocity of Light (1676)". Isis. 31 (2): 327–379. doi:10.1086/347594. hdl:2027/uc1.b4375710. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 225757. S2CID 145428377. Retrieved 2023-03-24.
  2. ^ More, Louis Trenchard (1934). Isaac Newton: A Biography. Dover Publications. p. 327.
  3. ^ Rowlinson, J.S. (2002). Cohesion: A Scientific History of Intermolecular Forces. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139435888.
  4. ^ Platts-Mills, Ben (2 July 2024). "The forgotten priest who predicted black holes – in 1783". BBC. Retrieved 2025-01-03.
  5. ^ Laplace, P.-S. (1799). Allgemeine geographische Ephemeriden herausgegeben von F. von Zach. IV. Band, I. Stück, I. Abhandlung, Weimar; translation in English: Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F.R. (1973). The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time. Cambridge University Press. pp. 365ff. ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6.
  6. ^ Colin Montgomery, Wayne Orchiston and Ian Whittingham, "Michell, Laplace and the origin of the Black Hole Concept" Archived 2 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 12(2), 90–96 (2009).
  7. ^ Poynting 1911, p. 385.
  8. ^ 'The aim [of experiments like Cavendish's] may be regarded either as the determination of the mass of the Earth,...conveniently expressed...as its "mean density", or as the determination of the "gravitation constant", G'. Cavendish's experiment is generally described today as a measurement of G.' (Clotfelter 1987 p. 210).
  9. ^ a b c d e Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black holes and time warps : Einstein's outrageous legacy. New York. ISBN 0393035050. OCLC 28147932.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  10. ^ Levy, Adam (January 11, 2021). "How black holes morphed from theory to reality". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-010921-1. S2CID 250662997. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
  11. ^ Reissner, H. (1916). "Über die Eigengravitation des elektrischen Feldes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie". Annalen der Physik. 355 (9): 106–120. Bibcode:1916AnP...355..106R. doi:10.1002/andp.19163550905. ISSN 0003-3804.
  12. ^ Nordström, G. (1918). "On the Energy of the Gravitational Field in Einstein's Theory". Koninklijke Nederlandsche Akademie van Wetenschappen Proceedings. 20 (2): 1238–1245. Bibcode:1918KNAB...20.1238N.
  13. ^ Oppenheimer, J. R.; Snyder, H. (1 September 1939). "On Continued Gravitational Contraction". Physical Review. 56 (5). American Physical Society (APS): 455–459. Bibcode:1939PhRv...56..455O. doi:10.1103/physrev.56.455. ISSN 0031-899X.
  14. ^ Tolman, R. C. (1939). "Static Solutions of Einstein's Field Equations for Spheres of Fluid". Physical Review. 55 (4): 364–373. Bibcode:1939PhRv...55..364T. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.55.364.
  15. ^ Oppenheimer, J. R.; Volkoff, G. M. (1939). "On Massive Neutron Cores". Physical Review. 55 (4): 374–381. Bibcode:1939PhRv...55..3740. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.55.374. {{cite journal}}: Check |bibcode= value (help)
  16. ^ Finkelstein, David (1958). "Past-future asymmetry of the gravitational field of a point particle". Physical Review. 110 (4): 965–967. Bibcode:1958PhRv..110..965F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.110.965.
  17. ^ Kerr, Roy P. (1963). "Gravitational Field of a Spinning Mass as an Example of Algebraically Special Metrics". Physical Review Letters. 11 (5): 237–238. Bibcode:1963PhRvL..11..237K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.11.237.
  18. ^ Melia, Fulvio (2009). "Cracking the Einstein code: relativity and the birth of black hole physics, with an Afterword by Roy Kerr", Princeton University Press, Princeton, ISBN 978-0226519517
  19. ^ Risen, Clay (22 September 2022). "Maarten Schmidt, First Astronomer to Identify a Quasar, Dies at 92". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  20. ^ Chiu, Hong-Yee (May 1964). "Gravitational collapse". Physics Today. 17 (5): 21–34. Bibcode:1964PhT....17e..21C. doi:10.1063/1.3051610. So far, the clumsily long name 'quasi-stellar radio sources' is used to describe these objects. Because the nature of these objects is entirely unknown, it is hard to prepare a short, appropriate nomenclature for them so that their essential properties are obvious from their name. For convenience, the abbreviated form 'quasar' will be used throughout this paper.
  21. ^ "Hong-Yee Chiu (b. 1932)". Smithsonian Institution Archives, Accession 90-105, Science Service Records, Image No. SIA2008-0238. Retrieved April 6, 2013. Summary: Chinese-American astrophysicist Hong-Yee Chiu (b. 1932) is credited with coining the term "quasar" in 1964.
  22. ^ Bartusiak, Marcia (2015). Black Hole: How an Idea Abandoned by Newtonians, Hated by Einstein, and Gambled On by Hawking Became Loved. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-21363-8.
  23. ^ Penrose, Roger (January 1965). "Gravitational Collapse and Space-Time Singularities". Physical Review Letters. 14 (3): 57–59. Bibcode:1965PhRvL..14...57P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.14.57.
  24. ^ Ferrarese, Laura; Ford, Holland (February 2005). "Supermassive Black Holes in Galactic Nuclei: Past, Present and Future Research". Space Science Reviews. 116 (3–4): 523–624. arXiv:astro-ph/0411247. Bibcode:2005SSRv..116..523F. doi:10.1007/s11214-005-3947-6. S2CID 119091861. it is fair to say that the single most influential event contributing to the acceptance of black holes was the 1967 discovery of pulsars by graduate student Jocelyn Bell. The clear evidence of the existence of neutron stars – which had been viewed with much skepticism until then – combined with the presence of a critical mass above which stability cannot be achieved, made the existence of stellar-mass black holes inescapable.
  25. ^ Israel, Werner (1967). "Event Horizons in Static Vacuum Space-Times". Phys. Rev. 164 (5): 1776–1779. Bibcode:1967PhRv..164.1776I. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.164.1776.
  26. ^ Penrose, R.; Floyd, R. M. (February 1971). "Extraction of Rotational Energy from a Black Hole". Nature Physical Science. 229 (6): 177–179. Bibcode:1971NPhS..229..177P. doi:10.1038/physci229177a0. ISSN 0300-8746.
  27. ^ Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip S.; Wheeler, John Archibald (1973). Gravitation. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-0334-1.Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler, Gravitation, Freeman and Company, 1973.
  28. ^ Williams, R. K. (1995). "Extracting X rays, Ύ rays, and relativistic ee+ pairs from supermassive Kerr black holes using the Penrose mechanism". Physical Review D. 51 (10): 5387–5427. Bibcode:1995PhRvD..51.5387W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.51.5387. PMID 10018300.
  29. ^ Penrose, Roger (1969). "Gravitational Collapse: the Role of General Relativity". Nuovo Cimento. Rivista Serie. 1: 252. Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P.
  30. ^ Bombaci, I. (1996). "The maximum mass of a neutron star". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 305: 871–877. arXiv:astro-ph/9608059. Bibcode:1996A&A...305..871B. doi:10.1086/310296. S2CID 119085893.
  31. ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 146.
  32. ^ Larsen 2005, p. 41.
  33. ^ S. W. Hawking; R. Penrose (27 January 1970). "The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 314 (1519): 529–548. Bibcode:1970RSPSA.314..529H. doi:10.1098/RSPA.1970.0021. ISSN 1364-5021. S2CID 120208756. Zbl 0954.83012. Wikidata Q55872061.
  34. ^ Stephen Hawking (March 1974). "Black hole explosions?". Nature. 248 (5443): 30–31. Bibcode:1974Natur.248...30H. doi:10.1038/248030A0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4290107. Zbl 1370.83053. Wikidata Q54017915.
  35. ^ Poisson, Eric; Israel, Werner (October 1989). "Inner-horizon instability and mass inflation in black holes". Physical Review Letters. 63 (16). American Physical Society. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.63.1663. Retrieved 13 May 2025.
  36. ^ Genzel, R; Hollenbach, D; Townes, C H (1994-05-01). "The nucleus of our Galaxy". Reports on Progress in Physics. 57 (5): 417–479. Bibcode:1994RPPh...57..417G. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/57/5/001. ISSN 0034-4885. S2CID 250900662.
  37. ^ [1] Scientific American – Big Gulp: Flaring Galaxy Marks the Messy Demise of a Star in a Supermassive Black Hole

See also

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